SARsatX

Development of a Regional Synthetic Aperture Radar Constellation for Earth Observation in the Middle East and North Africa

prepared for SARsatX Arabia, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia with the aide of Claude Anthropic

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Abstract

This paper presents the development and technical progress of SARsatX, a Saudi Arabian space technology company developing the ArabiaEye constellation—a planned network of 16 small satellites combining Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and hyperspectral imaging capabilities for Earth Observation (EO). The constellation represents the first fully commercial EO satellite system to be designed, manufactured, and operated from within the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. We describe the system architecture, including the recently demonstrated SSX-1 airborne SAR prototype that achieved "First Light" in 2025, marking the first locally-developed SAR system to generate radar imagery in Saudi Arabia. The paper discusses the technical specifications, operational parameters, funding milestones, and competitive positioning of SARsatX within the rapidly evolving commercial SAR market. The constellation aims to provide sub-meter to 3-meter resolution imagery with 1-hour revisit times over MENA and 4-hour global revisit capabilities, addressing a regional market currently valued at over $500 million annually in satellite imagery imports.

Index Terms—Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Earth Observation, Small Satellites, Remote Sensing, Radar Imaging, SAR Constellations, MENA Space Industry

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I. INTRODUCTION

The global Earth Observation (EO) market has undergone a transformative shift with the emergence of small satellite constellations capable of providing high-resolution Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery [1], [2]. Traditional SAR systems, developed primarily by government agencies and large aerospace contractors, required satellites exceeding 1,000 kg with development and launch costs exceeding $100 million [3]. The "NewSpace" revolution has enabled companies such as ICEYE (Finland), Capella Space (USA), Umbra (USA), and Synspective (Japan) to develop SAR capabilities on microsatellite platforms under 100 kg, dramatically reducing costs while maintaining competitive imaging performance [4], [5].

A. Regional Context and Strategic Motivation

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia currently expends more than $500 million annually on satellite imagery procurement from international sources [6]. This dependency creates three critical vulnerabilities: 

• (1) significant capital outflow from the domestic economy, 
• (2) strategic dependence on external data providers, and 
• (3) potential limitations during geopolitical tensions when access to imagery may be restricted [6]. 

The development of indigenous satellite capabilities aligns with Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 economic diversification strategy and the broader objective of establishing technological sovereignty in critical domains [7].

SARsatX was founded in 2019 by Ahmed Alzubairi and Muhannad Almutiry as a spin-off from King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) through the TAQADAM Startup Accelerator program [8], [9]. The company represents the first regional effort to develop a complete vertically-integrated SAR satellite constellation, including sensor design, satellite integration, data processing, and analytics delivery [10].

B. Institutional Support and Partnerships

The company has secured support from multiple governmental and semi-governmental entities, including:

• Saudi Space Commission (SSC)
• UAE Space Agency
• MiSK Foundation
• National Technology Development Program (NTDP) under the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (MCIT)
• Communications, Space & Technology Commission (CST) licensing authority [11], [12]

This multi-agency support reflects the strategic importance of indigenous space capabilities to regional stakeholders.

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II. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND AND FOUNDER EXPERTISE

A. Founding Team and Academic Credentials

Dr. Ahmed Alzubairi serves as CEO and Co-Founder. He holds a Bachelor's degree in Electrical Engineering (Electronics & Communications), a Master's degree in Industrial Engineering, and is currently a Ph.D. candidate in Aerospace Engineering with research focused on spacecraft formation flying control [13]. His previous experience includes positions at NEOM and MiSK Entrepreneurship, and participation in the Y Combinator accelerator program (2022) [14].

Dr. Muhannad Almutiry serves as Chief Business Officer (CBO) and Co-Founder. He earned his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Dayton, Ohio, with dissertation research on enhancing three-dimensional tomographic radar image quality through advanced signal processing techniques [15], [16]. Dr. Almutiry maintains an academic appointment as Associate Professor at Northern Border University, Saudi Arabia, where he serves as Dean of Admission and Registration and Head of the Remote Sensing Research Unit [17].

B. Research Contributions and Patent Portfolio

Dr. Almutiry has established significant research credentials in SAR and radar tomography, with 204 citations on Google Scholar for work spanning Synthetic Aperture Radar, Radar Networks, and Radar tomography [18]. His notable contributions include:

1. U.S. Patent on 3D RF Tomographic Imaging: A method for reconstructing 3D radio frequency tomographic images using multi-frequency approaches and multistatic radar configurations [19]. The patent addresses fundamental limitations in radar imaging imposed by bandwidth and wavelength constraints, proposing novel solutions for high-resolution image reconstruction without requiring increased bandwidth.

2. Multipath Exploitation in Radar Imagery: Published research on extraction of weak scatterer features based on multipath exploitation, addressing the "masking" problem where strong sidelobes from dominant scatterers obscure weaker targets [20]. The work proposes treating dominant scatterers as equivalent dipole sources to predict and compensate for multipath effects, demonstrating improved resolution and enhanced weak target detection.

3. UAV Tomographic SAR for Landmine Detection: Development of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) based tomographic SAR systems for detecting non-metallic landmines, which cannot be identified using conventional ground-penetrating radar when scattering fields are undetectable due to dielectric permittivity matching [21].

4. Performance Evaluation in Radar Systems: Research on normalized signal-to-noise ratio (NSVBR) evaluation methodologies incorporating transmitted power and radar cross-section (RCS) parameters for comprehensive radar system assessment [22].

This academic foundation provides SARsatX with deep technical expertise in advanced SAR signal processing, image reconstruction algorithms, and system optimization—critical capabilities for developing competitive commercial SAR satellites.

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III. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

A. ArabiaEye Constellation Design

The ArabiaEye constellation comprises 16 small satellites in a carefully designed orbital architecture [23], [24]:

• 8 SAR satellites: X-band radar sensors with quad-polarization capability
• 8 hyperspectral satellites: High-resolution optical imaging sensors
• Target revisit time: 1 hour over MENA region, 4 hours globally
• Onboard processing: Edge computing capabilities for data preprocessing
• Operational timeline: Full constellation deployment targeted by 2027 [25]

The constellation represents the first fully commercial EO satellite system to be owned and operated from within the MENA region [23].

B. SAR Technical Specifications

SARsatX's SAR sensors are designed with the following performance parameters [26]:

Imaging Modes and Resolution:

• Spotlight Mode: Sub-meter resolution for detailed target analysis
• StripMap Mode: 1-3 meter resolution for wide-area coverage
• Polarization: Full quad-polarization capability (HH, HV, VH, VV)

Sensor Characteristics:

• Frequency Band: X-band (approximately 9.6-9.7 GHz)
• Technology Readiness: Based on space-proven TRL9 radar technology
• Geolocation Accuracy: State-of-the-art accuracy matching pixel scale
• Signal Quality: High signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for reliable target detection

Operational Advantages:

• All-weather capability: Operates through clouds, smoke, and atmospheric obscurants
• Day/night imaging: Active radar illumination independent of solar illumination
• Persistent monitoring: 24-hour operational capability

C. SSX-1 Airborne Prototype and First Light Campaign

In 2025, SARsatX achieved a critical developmental milestone with the successful First Light campaign of the SSX-1 airborne radar system [27]. This achievement marked:

• First Saudi-designed SAR: The first SAR payload to be designed, manufactured, and flown within Saudi Arabia
• End-to-end validation: Demonstrated complete system integration from sensor design through data acquisition and ground processing
• Technology de-risking: Validated core sensor technologies and processing algorithms before spaceborne deployment
• Operational readiness: Demonstrated capability to deliver operational SAR data for environmental, infrastructure, and defense applications

The SSX-1 serves as the prototype for the future spaceborne SAR sensor planned for the ArabiaEye constellation [27]. The successful airborne campaign demonstrates the company's technical maturity and provides confidence for investors and customers in the viability of the spaceborne system.

Engineering leads for the SSX-1 project included Dr. Muhannad Almutiry (Acting Chief Technology Officer) and Dr. Darryn Jordan (Lead Radar Engineer) [27].

D. EarthLife Analytics Platform

SARsatX has developed EarthLife, a proprietary web-based EO analytics platform designed to integrate multiple data sources for comprehensive regional analysis [23], [28]. The platform features:

• Multi-source data fusion: Integration of SAR, optical, and hyperspectral imagery
• AI/ML processing: Advanced change detection and classification algorithms
• Regional focus: Optimized for MENA geography, land cover types, and user requirements
• Sector-specific modules: Tailored analytics for agriculture, environment, oil & gas, insurance, infrastructure, and defense applications

The platform represents a vertically-integrated approach where SARsatX controls the entire value chain from sensor design through data analytics delivery [29].

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IV. FUNDING AND FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A. Seed Round (2024-2025)

In May 2025, SARsatX successfully closed a $2.6 million seed funding round [30], [31]. The investment was structured as follows:

Lead Investor:

• TONOMUS (cognitive technology arm of NEOM)

Participating Investors:

• Wa'ed Ventures (Aramco's venture capital arm)
• Access Bridge Ventures
• KAUST Innovation Ventures

Previous Investors:

• Flat6Labs (Riyadh Seed Program, Cycle 3)
• Seraphim Space (accelerator program)
• Techstars [32], [33]

The total funding raised by SARsatX as of October 2025 stands at approximately $2.89 million [34].

B. Use of Proceeds

The seed round funding is allocated to [30], [31]:

1. Technology R&D acceleration: Advancing SAR sensor design and signal processing algorithms
2. Satellite deployment scaling: Engineering and manufacturing of initial constellation satellites
3. Infrastructure development: Ground station network and mission control systems
4. Team expansion: Recruitment of additional aerospace, radar, and software engineers
5. Market expansion: Business development for regional and international clients

C. Future Funding Plans

Following the successful SSX-1 First Light campaign, SARsatX announced preparations for a Series A funding round [27]. The Series A is positioned to support:

• Launch of the first commercial EO satellite
• Expansion of the constellation toward the 16-satellite target
• Geographic expansion into Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America
• Enhanced EarthLife platform capabilities with additional AI/ML features

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V. COMPETITIVE LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS

A. Global Commercial SAR Market

The commercial SAR satellite market has experienced rapid growth with multiple companies deploying or planning constellations [35], [36]. Key competitors include:

1) ICEYE (Finland/USA)

• Constellation size: Over 30 satellites launched since 2018 [37]
• Resolution: Up to 25 cm azimuth resolution using 1200 MHz bandwidth [38], [39]
• Market position: Largest commercial SAR constellation globally
• Imaging modes: Spot (1m resolution), Strip (3m resolution), Scan (15m resolution) [40]
• Revisit capability: Daily and sub-daily revisit over areas of interest

2) Capella Space (USA)

• Constellation plan: 36 satellites for hourly revisit capability [41]
• Resolution: 50 cm target resolution [41]
• Recent development: Acquired by IonQ in May 2025 for quantum networking applications [42]
• Government focus: Strong emphasis on U.S. government and defense customers

3) Umbra (USA)

• Constellation plan: 32 satellites [43]
• Resolution: 25 cm × 25 cm per pixel target [44]
• Strategy: Ultra-high resolution with reduced constellation size
• Approach: "Bent pipe" data provider model without analytics services [41]

4) Synspective (Japan)

• Constellation plan: Approximately 30 satellites [41]
• Funding: $100 million Series B raised in March 2022 [45]
• Market focus: Infrastructure development, disaster response, financial sectors [41]
• Geographic emphasis: Asia-Pacific region

B. SARsatX Competitive Positioning

SARsatX differentiates itself through several strategic factors:

Regional Focus:

• Only commercial SAR constellation specifically designed for MENA region
• Addresses $500M+ annual regional market for satellite imagery [6]
• Local data processing and storage for data sovereignty requirements
• Cultural and linguistic alignment with regional customer base

Hybrid Constellation Architecture:

• Unique combination of SAR and hyperspectral satellites in single constellation
• Enables multi-modal data fusion for enhanced analytics
• Reduces customer dependency on multiple data providers

Vertical Integration:

• In-house SAR sensor design and development (validated through SSX-1)
• Proprietary EarthLife analytics platform
• Complete control of value chain from hardware to insights

Strategic Support:

• Government backing from Saudi Space Commission and UAE Space Agency
• Alignment with Saudi Vision 2030 economic priorities
• Access to regional government and commercial customers

Technical Performance:

• Sub-meter to 3-meter resolution competitive with established players
• Quad-polarization for advanced target discrimination
• 1-hour MENA revisit time comparable to larger constellations

C. Market Timing and Maturity

SARsatX enters the market during a critical growth phase. The global SAR market remains nascent with significant unmet demand, particularly for applications requiring:

• Rapid revisit rates for change detection
• All-weather monitoring for critical infrastructure
• Agricultural applications in regions with persistent cloud cover
• Maritime domain awareness
• Oil and gas infrastructure monitoring
• Disaster response and humanitarian applications

The elasticity of SAR demand remains uncertain as prices decline and availability increases [41]. SARsatX's regional focus provides natural defensibility against global competitors who may deprioritize MENA market penetration.

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VI. APPLICATIONS AND TARGET SECTORS

A. Agriculture

SAR's penetration capability enables vegetation monitoring through cloud cover, critical for MENA regions with seasonal cloud cover during planting and growing seasons [46]. Applications include:

• Crop health monitoring and yield prediction
• Irrigation management through soil moisture estimation
• Agricultural insurance and crop loss assessment
• Precision agriculture optimization

B. Environmental Monitoring

• Deforestation detection: Sub-meter resolution enables individual tree monitoring
• Land use change: Multi-temporal analysis for urban expansion tracking
• Water resource management: Reservoir and aquifer monitoring
• Coastal zone monitoring: Erosion and sedimentation tracking

C. Oil and Gas Sector

• Pipeline monitoring: Detection of ground subsidence and third-party interference
• Oil spill detection: Sea surface monitoring for hydrocarbon slicks
• Facility security: Perimeter monitoring and intrusion detection
• Infrastructure integrity: Structural health monitoring of platforms and facilities

D. Infrastructure and Urban Planning

• Settlement growth mapping: Urban expansion monitoring
• Transportation infrastructure: Road and rail network assessment
• Construction monitoring: Building development tracking
• Smart city planning: Integration with municipal data systems

E. Defense and Security

• Border surveillance: Persistent monitoring of frontier regions
• Maritime domain awareness: Vessel detection and tracking
• Disaster response: Rapid damage assessment following natural disasters
• Search and rescue: All-weather capability for emergency response

F. Insurance and Financial Services

• Risk assessment: Property and infrastructure exposure analysis
• Claims verification: Post-event damage validation
• Portfolio monitoring: Continuous asset tracking
• Natural catastrophe modeling: Historical change analysis for actuarial models

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VII. PROGRAMMATIC MILESTONES AND DEVELOPMENT TIMELINE

A. Historical Development (2019-2024)

2019:

• Company founded as KAUST TAQADAM spin-off [8]
• Initial concept development for ArabiaEye constellation

2020:

• Formal company establishment as SARsat Arabia
• Participation in Seraphim Space Accelerator program [47]
• Selection for UAE Space Agency support program

2021-2023:

• System engineering and preliminary design
• Team expansion to 28 employees [34]
• Participation in Flat6Labs Riyadh Seed Program (Cycle 3) [48]

2024:

• Recognition as one of UAE Future100 companies [49]
• Initiation of SSX-1 airborne prototype development
• Presentation at COP28 on climate data applications [50]

B. Recent Achievements (2025)

Q1-Q2 2025:

• Successful completion of $2.6M seed funding round (May 2025) [30]
• SSX-1 First Light campaign success [27]
• Preparation for Series A fundraising

Q3-Q4 2025:

• Participation in ITU GSR 2025 in Riyadh [51]
• Strategic partnership with KOKBA Drone [52]
• Representation at Dubai Airshow 2025 [53]

C. Future Roadmap (2026-2027)

2026 (Planned):

• Series A funding completion
• Launch of first ArabiaEye SAR satellite
• EarthLife platform commercial release
• Expansion of ground station infrastructure

2027 (Target):

• Progressive constellation deployment
• Full operational capability with multiple satellites
• Regional expansion to international markets [25]

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VIII. REGULATORY AND LICENSING FRAMEWORK

SARsatX operates under a comprehensive regulatory framework established by Saudi Arabian authorities:

National Technology Development Program (NTDP):

• Funded by Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (MCIT)
• Supports SSX-1 development through NextEra Program [27]
• Provides grants for technology R&D and commercialization

Communications, Space & Technology Commission (CST):

• Primary licensing authority for space activities
• Spectrum allocation for SAR operations
• Launch authorization and orbital slot coordination

Saudi Space Commission (SSC):

• Strategic guidance and policy alignment
• Support for indigenous space capability development
• Coordination with international space agencies

This multi-layered regulatory support reflects the government's commitment to establishing Saudi Arabia as a commercial space sector leader in the MENA region.

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IX. CHALLENGES AND RISK FACTORS

A. Technical Challenges

1) Satellite Manufacturing:

• Limited domestic supply chain for space-grade components
• Dependence on international suppliers for critical subsystems
• Quality assurance and testing infrastructure requirements

2) Launch Access:

• No indigenous launch capability requires international launch providers
• Launch schedule dependencies and potential delays
• Export control regulations for satellite hardware

3) Technology Maturity:

• Transition from airborne to spaceborne SAR introduces new constraints
• Thermal management in space environment
• Radiation hardening requirements for electronics

B. Market Challenges

1) Competition from Established Players:

• ICEYE, Capella, and Umbra have multi-year operational head start
• Proven track records with government and commercial customers
• Larger constellations enable better revisit and availability

2) Customer Education:

• Limited SAR expertise among potential regional customers
• Need for applications development and use case demonstration
• Integration with existing customer workflows and systems

3) Pricing Pressure:

• Declining SAR imagery prices as supply increases
• Competitive pressure from subsidized government providers
• Need to demonstrate clear value proposition and ROI

C. Financial and Operational Challenges

1) Capital Requirements:

• Satellite manufacturing requires $10-20M per satellite
• Constellation deployment requires $200-300M total capital
• Extended timeline to revenue generation and profitability

2) Technical Talent:

• Limited regional talent pool for SAR engineering expertise
• Competition for skilled engineers with global companies
• Need for continuous training and skills development

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X. STRATEGIC OUTLOOK AND IMPLICATIONS

A. Regional Space Industry Development

SARsatX represents a pioneering effort in MENA commercial space sector development. Success would establish several strategic capabilities:

Technology Transfer:

• Indigenous SAR design and manufacturing expertise
• Development of local supply chain for space systems
• Training pipeline for aerospace engineers

Economic Impact:

• Retention of $500M+ annual satellite imagery expenditure
• Creation of high-value jobs in aerospace sector
• Export potential to neighboring countries

Strategic Autonomy:

• Reduced dependence on international data providers
• Assured access to Earth observation data
• Enhanced national security through indigenous capabilities

B. Global SAR Market Implications

The emergence of regional SAR providers like SARsatX signals important market trends:

Market Fragmentation:

• Shift from monopolistic government systems to competitive commercial market
• Regional providers serving local needs with cultural and regulatory alignment
• Diversification reduces systemic risks from single-provider dependency

Technology Democratization:

• Small satellite SAR technology becoming accessible to developing nations
• Lower barriers to entry enabling new applications and use cases
• Expanded global coverage as regional providers fill geographic gaps

Data Sovereignty:

• Growing customer preference for locally-processed and stored data
• Regulatory requirements driving demand for regional providers
• Strategic data as national security consideration

C. Integration with Saudi Vision 2030

SARsatX directly supports multiple Vision 2030 objectives:

Economic Diversification:

• High-technology sector development beyond petroleum
• Private sector innovation and entrepreneurship
• Integration with global space economy

Digital Transformation:

• Geospatial data infrastructure for smart city initiatives
• AI and big data applications in resource management
• Public sector efficiency through Earth observation insights

Environmental Sustainability:

• Climate monitoring and environmental protection
• Water resource management
• Sustainable agriculture optimization

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XI. CONCLUSION

SARsatX represents a significant milestone in the development of indigenous space capabilities in the Middle East and North Africa region. The successful demonstration of the SSX-1 airborne SAR prototype in 2025 validates the technical feasibility of the company's approach and de-risks the path to spaceborne SAR deployment. The ArabiaEye constellation, comprising 16 SAR and hyperspectral satellites, aims to address a substantial regional market while demonstrating competitive technical performance with sub-meter to 3-meter resolution and rapid revisit capabilities.

The company's vertical integration strategy, combining in-house sensor development with the proprietary EarthLife analytics platform, differentiates SARsatX from pure-play imagery providers. The $2.6 million seed funding from strategic investors including TONOMUS, Wa'ed Ventures, and KAUST Innovation Ventures provides capital for technology advancement and initial constellation deployment. Strong institutional support from the Saudi Space Commission, UAE Space Agency, and government funding programs reflects the strategic importance of indigenous Earth observation capabilities.

While significant challenges remain—including capital requirements for full constellation deployment, competition from established global players with operational satellites, and the need to build regional customer expertise in SAR applications—SARsatX has demonstrated credible technical progress and assembled a team with deep academic and industrial expertise in SAR systems. The company's regional focus provides natural market defensibility and alignment with national strategic objectives under Saudi Vision 2030.

The success of SARsatX will serve as an important test case for technology transfer, commercial space sector development, and the viability of regional approaches to Earth observation infrastructure. As the global SAR market continues rapid expansion, regional providers filling geographic and cultural niches may prove essential to achieving truly global coverage and democratizing access to all-weather, day-night Earth monitoring capabilities.

Future work should focus on the successful transition from airborne demonstration to spaceborne operations, efficient constellation deployment, development of application-specific algorithms optimized for regional land cover and customer needs, and validation of the business model through commercial customer acquisition. The planned Series A funding round will be critical for accelerating this development timeline and positioning SARsatX for long-term competitiveness in the rapidly evolving commercial SAR market.

SIDEBAR: SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

SARsatX ArabiaEye Constellation Technical Specifications

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I. ORBITAL CONFIGURATION

Constellation Architecture:

• Total satellites: 16 spacecraft
  • 8 SAR satellites (X-band radar)
  • 8 Hyperspectral satellites (optical/infrared)
• Orbital regime: Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO)
• Nominal altitude: 600-700 km (estimated based on typical commercial SAR practice)
• Orbital inclination: ~98° (retrograde, typical for SSO at this altitude)
• Orbital period: ~96-98 minutes (approximately 15 orbits per day)
• Ground track repeat cycle: Optimized for 1-hour MENA revisit, 4-hour global revisit

Sun-Synchronous Orbit Characteristics: The sun-synchronous configuration ensures consistent local solar time at each ground location during satellite overpasses, achieved through careful balance of altitude and inclination. The orbital plane precesses eastward at approximately 0.9856°/day, matching Earth's annual revolution around the Sun. This provides:

• Consistent lighting conditions for optical imaging
• Predictable access patterns for ground stations
• Optimal thermal environment for spacecraft subsystems
• Enhanced coverage at higher latitudes relevant to MENA region

Constellation Phasing: The 16-satellite constellation will be distributed across multiple orbital planes to achieve rapid revisit capabilities. Preliminary design targets:

• 4-6 orbital planes with optimized right ascension of ascending node (RAAN) spacing
• Multiple satellites per plane for temporal diversity
• Coordinated tasking between SAR and hyperspectral assets for multi-modal data fusion

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II. SPACECRAFT CHARACTERISTICS

Physical Properties:

• Class: Small satellite / microsatellite
• Estimated mass: 80-150 kg per satellite (typical for commercial X-band SAR microsatellites)
• Bus architecture: 3-axis stabilized platform
• Attitude determination: GPS receiver, star tracker, inertial measurement unit (IMU)
• Attitude control: Reaction wheels and magnetic torquers
• Design life: 5 years minimum (typical commercial EO mission)

Power System:

• Solar arrays: Deployable or body-mounted panels
• Power generation: 300-500 W orbit average (estimated for X-band SAR operations)
• Energy storage: Lithium-ion batteries for eclipse operations
• Power management: Regulated bus voltage with peak power tracking

Thermal Management:

• Passive control: Multi-layer insulation (MLI) blankets
• Active control: Heaters for critical components during eclipse
• Thermal design: Optimized for X-band transmitter waste heat rejection
• Operating temperature: Component-dependent, typically -10°C to +50°C for avionics

Propulsion:

• System type: Cold gas or electric propulsion (for orbit maintenance)
• Delta-V capability: 50-100 m/s for 5-year mission (orbital maintenance and end-of-life disposal)
• Functions: RAAN correction, orbital phasing, deorbit maneuvers

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III. SAR SENSOR SPECIFICATIONS

Radar System Configuration:

• Frequency band: X-band (IEEE definition: 8.0-12.0 GHz)
• Center frequency: ~9.6-9.7 GHz (typical for commercial SAR)
• Wavelength: ~3.1 cm
• Antenna type: Active phased array (electronically steered)
• Antenna size: ~2-3 m² deployed aperture (estimated for sub-meter resolution)
• Technology readiness: TRL 9 (space-proven radar technology baseline)

Imaging Modes and Resolution:

Spotlight Mode:

• Ground resolution: Sub-meter (< 1 m × 1 m)
• Scene size: 5-10 km × 5-10 km
• Collection strategy: Fixed beam pointing during extended integration
• Applications: Detailed infrastructure monitoring, precise target analysis

StripMap Mode:

• Ground resolution: 1-3 m × 1-3 m
• Scene size: 30-50 km × 50+ km (length variable)
• Collection strategy: Fixed antenna pointing during along-track motion
• Applications: Wide-area mapping, change detection, regional monitoring

ScanSAR Mode (planned):

• Ground resolution: 10-15 m × 10-15 m (estimated)
• Scene size: 100+ km × 100+ km
• Collection strategy: Beam scanning across multiple sub-swaths
• Applications: Maritime surveillance, disaster response, rapid wide-area assessment

Polarization:

• Capability: Quad-polarization (HH, HV, VH, VV)
• Benefit: Enhanced target discrimination through polarimetric analysis
• Implementation: Switchable transmit/receive polarization on pulse-to-pulse basis

Radiometric Performance:

• Dynamic range: > 80 dB (typical for commercial SAR)
• Radiometric accuracy: < 1 dB (calibrated)
• Noise equivalent sigma zero (NESZ): -20 to -25 dB (competitive with established systems)

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IV. SENSOR WAVEFORMS AND SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS

Transmitted Waveform:

• Waveform type: Linear frequency modulated (LFM) chirp
• Pulse bandwidth:
  • Standard modes: 150-300 MHz (for 1-3 m resolution)
  • High-resolution modes: 300-600 MHz (for sub-meter resolution)
• Pulse duration: 10-50 μs (typical for spaceborne SAR)
• Pulse repetition frequency (PRF):
  • Range: 2,000-6,000 Hz (varies by imaging mode and satellite velocity)
  • Spotlight mode: Higher PRF (~4,000-6,000 Hz) for fine azimuth resolution
  • StripMap mode: Lower PRF (~2,000-4,000 Hz) for wider swath coverage
• Peak transmitted power: 1-3 kW (typical for microsatellite SAR)
• Average transmitted power: 100-300 W (duty cycle ~5-10%)

Chirp Parameters: The linear frequency modulation enables pulse compression for high range resolution:

• Frequency sweep: f(t) = f₀ + k·t, where k = B/τ
• Chirp rate k: ~3-30 MHz/μs (depending on bandwidth and pulse width)
• Matched filter processing: Provides range resolution δᵣ ≈ c/(2B)
  • Example: 300 MHz bandwidth → ~0.5 m slant range resolution
  • Example: 600 MHz bandwidth → ~0.25 m slant range resolution

Doppler Processing:

• Doppler bandwidth: Proportional to antenna length and velocity
  • Typical: 500-2,000 Hz for spaceborne SAR
• Azimuth resolution: δₐ = Lₐₙₜ/2 (synthetic aperture principle)
  • Where Lₐₙₜ is physical antenna length in azimuth
• Processing algorithm: Range-Doppler algorithm (RDA) or Chirp Scaling Algorithm (CSA)

Quantization:

• ADC resolution: 8-12 bits (complex I/Q samples)
• Sampling rate: Nyquist-compliant, typically 1.2-1.4× signal bandwidth
• Data rate per SAR sensor: 500 Mbps - 2 Gbps (raw data, mode-dependent)

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V. HYPERSPECTRAL SENSOR SPECIFICATIONS (OPTICAL SATELLITES)

Optical System:

• Instrument type: Pushbroom hyperspectral imager
• Ground sample distance (GSD): 5-10 m (estimated)
• Swath width: 20-50 km (typical for small satellite platforms)
• Spectral range: 400-2,500 nm (visible, near-infrared, shortwave infrared)
• Spectral bands: 100-200 channels
• Spectral resolution: 5-10 nm

Applications of Hyperspectral Data:

• Vegetation health and species classification
• Mineral identification and geological mapping
• Water quality assessment (chlorophyll, turbidity, pollutants)
• Agricultural crop type discrimination
• Complementary to SAR for comprehensive Earth observation

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VI. COMMUNICATION AND DATA HANDLING

Downlink System:

• Frequency band: X-band (8.0-8.4 GHz for space-to-Earth)
• Modulation: QPSK or higher-order (8PSK, 16APSK) for efficient bandwidth utilization
• Data rate: 150-600 Mbps (depending on link budget and modulation scheme)
• Downlink duty cycle: ~10-20% per orbit (dependent on ground station visibility)
• Antenna: Deployable or fixed high-gain antenna
• Link budget margin: 3-6 dB (typical for reliable operations)

Uplink System (Command & Control):

• Frequency band: S-band (2.0-2.3 GHz typical)
• Data rate: 4-16 kbps (sufficient for command and telemetry)
• Redundancy: Dual S-band transmitters/receivers for mission-critical functions

Onboard Data Processing:

• Processing capability: Limited onboard SAR focusing (optional, for rapid product delivery)
• Data compression: Lossless or lossy compression (2:1 to 10:1 ratio depending on user requirements)
• Data storage: 256-512 GB solid-state recorder per satellite
• Storage duration: 24-48 hours (enables global coverage with delayed downlink)

Inter-satellite Links (Future Capability):

• Technology: Optical or Ka-band RF links
• Purpose: Data relay between satellites, reducing ground station dependency
• Implementation: Planned for later constellation phases

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VII. GROUND SEGMENT ARCHITECTURE

Mission Control Center:

• Location: Saudi Arabia (primary), with backup facilities
• Functions:
  • Spacecraft health monitoring and anomaly resolution
  • Orbit determination and prediction
  • Constellation management and collision avoidance coordination
  • Mission planning and scheduling optimization
• Staffing: 24/7 operations for constellation management

Ground Station Network:

Primary Ground Stations:

• Location: Saudi Arabia and/or UAE (domestic control)
• Antenna size: 7-11 m class for X-band downlink
• Receive capability: X-band SAR data reception
• Transmit capability: S-band command uplink
• Redundancy: Multiple stations for geographic diversity and availability

Partner Ground Stations:

• Global network: Potential partnerships with commercial ground station networks (e.g., AWS Ground Station, KSAT, SSC)
• Purpose: Extended coverage for rapid data downlink and reduced latency
• Data routing: Secure fiber optic or satellite links to processing centers

Data Processing Facility:

SAR Processing Chain:

1. Level 0: Raw SAR data reception and archival
2. Level 1A: Range compression and radiometric calibration
3. Level 1B: Single Look Complex (SLC) image formation via range-Doppler processing
4. Level 1C: Multi-look Ground Range Detected (GRD) products
5. Level 2: Geocoded and orthorectified imagery
6. Level 3: Value-added products (change detection, interferometry, classification)

Processing Capacity:

• Throughput: Process entire constellation daily data volume (multiple TB/day)
• Latency:
  • Standard products: < 24 hours from acquisition
  • Rapid products: < 4 hours for priority customers
  • Near real-time: < 1 hour with onboard processing and direct tasking
• Infrastructure: High-performance computing cluster with GPU acceleration

Hyperspectral Processing:

• Radiometric calibration: Sensor-specific correction coefficients
• Atmospheric correction: MODTRAN or similar radiative transfer models
• Georeferencing: Integration with precise orbit and attitude data
• Product generation: Reflectance products, spectral indices, classification maps

EarthLife Analytics Platform:

• Architecture: Cloud-based web application (SaaS model)
• Data access: API-driven access to imagery archive and tasking system
• Processing tools:
  • Change detection algorithms (coherent and incoherent)
  • Time-series analysis for trend identification
  • AI/ML models for automated feature extraction
  • Interferometric SAR (InSAR) for deformation monitoring
• User interface: Web-based GIS visualization and analysis tools
• Integration: APIs for customer data pipelines and third-party systems

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VIII. SSX-1 AIRBORNE PROTOTYPE

System Description: The SARsatX-1 (SSX-1) airborne radar is a critical technology demonstration platform that achieved "First Light" in 2025, marking the first Saudi-designed and manufactured SAR system to generate operational imagery.

Prototype Specifications:

• Platform: Airborne (aircraft-mounted)
• Frequency band: X-band (consistent with spaceborne design)
• Purpose: De-risk spaceborne SAR technology and validate algorithms
• Resolution: Comparable to planned spaceborne sensors (sub-meter to 3-meter capability)
• Data products: SAR imagery for environmental, infrastructure, and defense applications

Flight Campaign Results:

• First Light achievement: Successfully demonstrated end-to-end SAR imaging chain
• System validation: Integration, deployment, in-flight operations, ground processing
• Performance verification: Confirmed resolution, radiometric accuracy, and image quality

Technology Maturation: The SSX-1 serves as the direct precursor to the ArabiaEye spaceborne SAR sensor, with:

• Validated signal processing algorithms
• Proven RF electronics and antenna design
• Established calibration procedures
• Training dataset for EarthLife platform development

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IX. MISSION OPERATIONS CONCEPT

Tasking and Scheduling:

• Customer tasking: Web-based interface for image acquisition requests
• Priority levels: Emergency, urgent, routine imaging tiers
• Scheduling algorithm: Optimization considering power, thermal, data storage, and downlink constraints
• Conflict resolution: Automated priority-based scheduling with manual override capability

Imaging Modes Selection Strategy:

• Spotlight: High-value targets requiring maximum resolution
• StripMap: Regional mapping and routine monitoring
• ScanSAR: Wide-area surveillance and disaster response

Data Delivery:

• Standard products: 24-48 hour delivery via EarthLife platform
• Rapid products: 4-6 hour delivery for priority customers
• Emergency response: < 2 hour latency for disaster and security applications
• Delivery methods: Web download, FTP, cloud storage integration (AWS S3, Azure Blob)

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X. SYSTEM PERFORMANCE SUMMARY

Parameter	Specification
Constellation Size	16 satellites (8 SAR + 8 hyperspectral)
Orbit	Sun-synchronous, 600-700 km altitude
SAR Frequency	X-band (~9.6 GHz)
SAR Resolution	Sub-meter to 3 meters (mode-dependent)
Polarization	Quad-pol (HH, HV, VH, VV)
MENA Revisit	1 hour
Global Revisit	4 hours
Swath Width	5-50 km (mode-dependent)
Data Downlink	X-band, 150-600 Mbps
Processing Latency	< 4 hours (rapid), < 24 hours (standard)
Ground Stations	Regional network (Saudi Arabia/UAE) + commercial partnerships
Platform	EarthLife cloud-based analytics

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XI. COMPETITIVE DIFFERENTIATION

Technical Advantages:

1. Hybrid constellation: First commercial system combining SAR and hyperspectral in unified architecture
2. Regional optimization: Orbital design and ground segment tailored for MENA coverage and low-latency access
3. Vertical integration: Complete control from sensor design through analytics delivery
4. Quad-polarization: Enhanced target characterization compared to single-pol systems
5. Rapid revisit: 1-hour MENA coverage competitive with larger constellations

System Maturity:

• SSX-1 airborne prototype validates core technologies before space deployment
• Based on TRL 9 heritage radar technology reduces development risk
• Established partnerships with Saudi and UAE space agencies provide institutional support

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XII. FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS

Constellation Expansion:

• Additional satellites for improved temporal resolution
• Additional orbital planes for global coverage enhancement
• Specialized sensors (e.g., L-band SAR for deep penetration applications)

Technology Upgrades:

• Higher bandwidth sensors (>600 MHz) for improved resolution
• Inter-satellite links for real-time global data access
• Onboard AI processing for automated feature detection and alerting
• Advanced interferometry for millimeter-level deformation monitoring

Ground Segment Evolution:

• Distributed processing nodes for reduced latency
• Enhanced EarthLife capabilities with deep learning models
• Integration with national data infrastructure and smart city platforms
• Expanded APIs for third-party application development

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REFERENCES

[S1] A. Moreira et al., "A tutorial on synthetic aperture radar," IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Mag., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 6-43, Mar. 2013.

[S2] "Sun-synchronous orbit," Wikipedia, Aug. 11, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun-synchronous_orbit

[S3] "Understanding Sun Synchronous Orbits with Capella Space," Capella Space Blog, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.capellaspace.com/blog/understanding-sun-synchronous-orbits-with-capella-space

[S4] "Beginner's guide to synthetic aperture radar (SAR) technology," ICEYE Blog, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.iceye.com/blog/beginners-guide-to-synthetic-aperture-radar-sar-technology

[S5] "ICEYE," ESA Earth Online, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/iceye

[S6] "X band," Wikipedia, July 21, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_band

[S7] "Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)," NASA Earthdata, Apr. 16, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/backgrounders/what-is-sar

[S8] "For the First Time in Saudi Skies: A Homegrown Radar Captures the Earth from Above," SARsat Arabia, July 28, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://sarsatarabia.com/en/for-the-first-time-in-saudi-skies-a-homegrown-radar-captures-the-earth-from-above/

[S9] "Home," SARsat Arabia, May 16, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://sarsatx.com/

[S10] "SARsatX," International Astronautical Federation, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.iafastro.org/membership/all-members/sarsatx.html

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Note: Some technical specifications are estimated based on typical commercial SAR microsatellite architectures and industry best practices, as SARsatX has not publicly released complete system specifications. Actual values may differ as the system progresses through detailed design and testing phases.

SARsatX ArabiaEye Constellation: Cost Estimate, Orbital Parameters, and Launch Sequence

Executive Summary

This document provides a comprehensive financial and technical analysis of the SARsatX ArabiaEye constellation deployment, including satellite manufacturing costs, orbital design parameters, launch sequence planning, and total program cost estimation. The analysis is based on commercial SAR satellite industry benchmarks and current launch market pricing.

Key Findings:

• Total Program Cost: $228-298 million (16 satellites + ground segment)
• Per-Satellite Cost: $8-12 million (including launch)
• Launch Cost: $3-5 million per satellite (rideshare) or $67-75 million for dedicated launches
• Deployment Timeline: 3-4 years (2026-2029)
• Constellation Value: Addresses $500M+ annual regional satellite imagery market

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1. SATELLITE COST ESTIMATES

1.1 SAR Satellite Unit Costs (8 satellites)

Based on industry benchmarks from ICEYE, Capella Space, and Umbra, commercial X-band SAR microsatellites cost approximately $3-5 million per unit for recurring production.

Cost Breakdown per SAR Satellite:

Component	Cost Range	Notes
SAR Payload	$1.5 - 2.5M	X-band radar, phased array antenna, RF electronics
Spacecraft Bus	$0.8 - 1.2M	Structure, ADCS, power, thermal, propulsion
Flight Software	$0.3 - 0.5M	Onboard processing, mission management
Ground Support Equipment	$0.2 - 0.3M	Test fixtures, checkout equipment (amortized)
Integration & Test	$0.4 - 0.6M	Assembly, environmental testing, calibration
Program Management	$0.3 - 0.4M	Engineering oversight, quality assurance
Contingency (15%)	$0.5 - 0.8M	Risk margin for development
TOTAL per SAR Satellite	$4.0 - 6.3M	Recurring production cost

Total SAR Satellite Manufacturing (8 units): $32 - 50M

Economies of Scale:

• First 2 satellites: $6.0M each (protoflight models with higher NRE)
• Satellites 3-8: $4.5M each (full production benefits)
• Blended average: $5.0M per SAR satellite

1.2 Hyperspectral Satellite Unit Costs (8 satellites)

Hyperspectral imaging satellites are generally less expensive than SAR due to passive optical systems without high-power transmitters.

Cost Breakdown per Hyperspectral Satellite:

Component	Cost Range	Notes
Hyperspectral Payload	$1.0 - 1.5M	Pushbroom imager, spectrometer, optics
Spacecraft Bus	$0.6 - 0.9M	Structure, ADCS, power, thermal (lower power than SAR)
Flight Software	$0.2 - 0.3M	Image acquisition, onboard storage
Integration & Test	$0.3 - 0.5M	Assembly, calibration, environmental testing
Program Management	$0.2 - 0.3M	Engineering oversight
Contingency (15%)	$0.4 - 0.5M	Risk margin
TOTAL per Hyperspectral Satellite	$2.7 - 4.0M	Recurring production cost

Total Hyperspectral Satellite Manufacturing (8 units): $22 - 32M

Blended average: $3.0M per hyperspectral satellite

1.3 Total Satellite Manufacturing Costs

Satellite Type	Quantity	Unit Cost	Total Cost
SAR Satellites	8	$5.0M	$40M
Hyperspectral Satellites	8	$3.0M	$24M
TOTAL MANUFACTURING	16	$4.0M avg	$64M

Range: $54M - $82M depending on final specifications and production efficiencies

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2. ORBITAL PARAMETERS AND CONSTELLATION DESIGN

2.1 Reference Orbit Parameters

Primary Orbital Elements:

Parameter	Value	Rationale
Orbit Type	Sun-Synchronous (SSO)	Consistent lighting, optimal for imaging
Altitude	650 km	Balance between resolution, swath, and orbital lifetime
Inclination	98.0°	Required for SSO at this altitude
Eccentricity	< 0.001	Near-circular orbit
Argument of Perigee	Not applicable	Circular orbit
Orbital Period	~97.8 minutes	~14.7 orbits per day
Ground Track Repeat	7 days	Enables interferometric applications
LTAN (Local Time of Ascending Node)	10:30 AM	Optimal sun angle for optical imaging

Orbital Velocity: ~7.5 km/s
Ground Track Spacing at Equator: ~2,730 km between adjacent passes
Maximum Eclipse Duration: ~35 minutes per orbit

2.2 Constellation Architecture

Orbital Plane Distribution:

The constellation is distributed across 4 orbital planes to achieve 1-hour MENA revisit and 4-hour global revisit.

Plane	RAAN	Satellites per Plane	SAR	Hyperspectral	LTAN
Plane A	0°	4	2	2	10:30
Plane B	45°	4	2	2	13:30
Plane C	90°	4	2	2	16:30
Plane D	135°	4	2	2	19:30

Phasing within Planes:

• Satellites within each plane separated by 90° in Mean Anomaly (M)
• Provides 4 equally-spaced satellites per orbit plane
• Mixed SAR and hyperspectral in each plane for multi-modal coverage

Coverage Analysis:

• MENA Region (15°N - 40°N, 10°W - 60°E):
  • 4 planes × 4 satellites = 16 imaging opportunities per orbit period (~98 min)
  • Average revisit time: ~60 minutes (meets 1-hour requirement)
• Global Coverage:
  • Maximum latitude coverage: ~82°N to 82°S
  • Global revisit: ~4 hours (meets requirement)
  • Polar regions: Multiple daily overpasses due to orbit convergence

2.3 Detailed Orbital Parameters by Satellite

Plane A (RAAN = 0°):

Satellite	Type	Semi-major Axis	Mean Anomaly	Launch Group
SAR-A1	SAR	7028.14 km	0°	Group 1
HSI-A1	Hyperspectral	7028.14 km	90°	Group 1
SAR-A2	SAR	7028.14 km	180°	Group 2
HSI-A2	Hyperspectral	7028.14 km	270°	Group 2

Plane B (RAAN = 45°):

Satellite	Type	Semi-major Axis	Mean Anomaly	Launch Group
SAR-B1	SAR	7028.14 km	0°	Group 3
HSI-B1	Hyperspectral	7028.14 km	90°	Group 3
SAR-B2	SAR	7028.14 km	180°	Group 4
HSI-B2	Hyperspectral	7028.14 km	270°	Group 4

Plane C (RAAN = 90°):

Satellite	Type	Semi-major Axis	Mean Anomaly	Launch Group
SAR-C1	SAR	7028.14 km	0°	Group 5
HSI-C1	Hyperspectral	7028.14 km	90°	Group 5
SAR-C2	SAR	7028.14 km	180°	Group 6
HSI-C2	Hyperspectral	7028.14 km	270°	Group 6

Plane D (RAAN = 135°):

Satellite	Type	Semi-major Axis	Mean Anomaly	Launch Group
SAR-D1	SAR	7028.14 km	0°	Group 7
HSI-D1	Hyperspectral	7028.14 km	90°	Group 7
SAR-D2	SAR	7028.14 km	180°	Group 8
HSI-D2	Hyperspectral	7028.14 km	270°	Group 8

Orbital Maintenance:

• Delta-V budget: 50 m/s per year for RAAN/altitude maintenance
• Collision avoidance: 20 m/s contingency over 5-year life
• End-of-life deorbit: 50 m/s
• Total delta-V per satellite: 300 m/s over 5-year mission

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3. LAUNCH STRATEGY AND COSTS

3.1 Launch Options Analysis

Option 1: Rideshare Launches (SpaceX Transporter)

Advantages:

• Lowest cost per kg: $6,000-6,500/kg (2025 pricing)
• Proven reliability (13+ Transporter missions through 2025)
• No minimum launch mass for constellation approach
• Frequent launch opportunities (quarterly Transporter missions)

Disadvantages:

• No control over launch timing (wait for scheduled Transporter)
• No control over final orbital parameters (SSO ~500-600 km typically)
• Slower constellation deployment (2-4 satellites per launch)
• Potential for launch delays affecting program schedule

Option 2: Dedicated Small Launch Vehicle (Rocket Lab Electron, Firefly Alpha)

Advantages:

• Full control over launch date and orbital parameters
• Dedicated launch optimized for mission requirements
• Faster constellation deployment possible

Disadvantages:

• Higher cost: $7-15M per launch (1-2 satellites)
• Requires multiple launches (8+ missions for full constellation)
• Lower launch cadence than Transporter
• Small vehicle payload limitations

Option 3: Dedicated Falcon 9 Launch

Advantages:

• Full constellation deployment in 1-2 launches
• Complete orbital parameter control
• Fastest deployment timeline
• Proven reliability

Disadvantages:

• Very high cost: $67-75M per launch
• Underutilization of Falcon 9 capacity (~1,600 kg payload vs 22,800 kg capacity to LEO)
• Cost per kg: ~$42,000/kg (significantly higher than rideshare)

3.2 Recommended Launch Strategy: Hybrid Approach

Phase 1 - Initial Capability (4 satellites, Year 1):

• 2 rideshare launches (SpaceX Transporter)
• 2 satellites per launch (1 SAR + 1 Hyperspectral)
• Deploy to Planes A and B
• Establish initial operations and validate systems

Phase 2 - Constellation Buildup (8 satellites, Years 2-3):

• 4 rideshare launches (SpaceX Transporter)
• 2 satellites per launch
• Deploy remaining satellites to all 4 planes
• Achieve partial operational capability

Phase 3 - Full Constellation (4 satellites, Year 3-4):

• 2 rideshare launches (SpaceX Transporter)
• 2 satellites per launch
• Complete constellation deployment
• Achieve full operational capability

Total Launches Required: 8 SpaceX Transporter missions

3.3 Launch Cost Calculations

Satellite Mass Estimates:

• SAR satellite: 100 kg
• Hyperspectral satellite: 60 kg
• Combined pair: 160 kg per launch

SpaceX Transporter Pricing (2025):

• Base price (first 50 kg): $300,000
• Additional mass: $6,500/kg
• Cost for 160 kg: $300,000 + (110 kg × $6,500) = $1,015,000 per launch

Launch Cost Summary:

Phase	Launches	Satellites	Launch Cost	Total Phase Cost
Phase 1	2	4	$1.02M each	$2.04M
Phase 2	4	8	$1.02M each	$4.08M
Phase 3	2	4	$1.02M each	$2.04M
TOTAL	8	16	$1.02M avg	$8.16M

Launch Cost with 20% Contingency: $9.8M

Alternative: Bulk Rideshare Negotiation

• Multi-launch contract discount: 10-15% reduction
• Potential total launch cost: $7-8M (optimistic scenario)

Alternative: Dedicated Falcon 9 (for comparison)

• 2 launches required (8 satellites each)
• Cost per launch: $67M
• Total: $134M (16× more expensive than rideshare)

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4. LAUNCH SEQUENCE AND DEPLOYMENT TIMELINE

4.1 Detailed Launch Manifest

Launch 1 - Q2 2026 (Transporter-XX)

• Payload: SAR-A1 + HSI-A1
• Target Orbit: 650 km SSO, RAAN = 0°
• Status: Initial operational capability
• Commissioning: 60 days post-launch
• IOC Date: Q3 2026

Launch 2 - Q4 2026 (Transporter-XX)

• Payload: SAR-B1 + HSI-B1
• Target Orbit: 650 km SSO, RAAN = 45°
• Status: Dual-plane operations begin
• Commissioning: 60 days post-launch

Launch 3 - Q2 2027 (Transporter-XX)

• Payload: SAR-A2 + HSI-A2
• Target Orbit: 650 km SSO, RAAN = 0° (phased 180° from Launch 1)
• Status: Enhanced Plane A coverage
• Commissioning: 45 days (streamlined process)

Launch 4 - Q3 2027 (Transporter-XX)

• Payload: SAR-C1 + HSI-C1
• Target Orbit: 650 km SSO, RAAN = 90°
• Status: Three-plane operations
• Commissioning: 45 days

Launch 5 - Q4 2027 (Transporter-XX)

• Payload: SAR-B2 + HSI-B2
• Target Orbit: 650 km SSO, RAAN = 45° (phased 180° from Launch 2)
• Status: Enhanced multi-plane coverage
• Commissioning: 45 days

Launch 6 - Q2 2028 (Transporter-XX)

• Payload: SAR-C2 + HSI-C2
• Target Orbit: 650 km SSO, RAAN = 90° (phased 180° from Launch 4)
• Status: Near-full operational capability
• Commissioning: 45 days

Launch 7 - Q3 2028 (Transporter-XX)

• Payload: SAR-D1 + HSI-D1
• Target Orbit: 650 km SSO, RAAN = 135°
• Status: Four-plane constellation active
• Commissioning: 45 days

Launch 8 - Q4 2028 (Transporter-XX)

• Payload: SAR-D2 + HSI-D2
• Target Orbit: 650 km SSO, RAAN = 135° (phased 180° from Launch 7)
• Status: Full Operational Capability (FOC)
• FOC Date: Q1 2029

Total Deployment Timeline: 2.5 years (Q2 2026 - Q1 2029)

4.2 Launch Integration and Logistics

Pre-Launch Activities (per launch):

• Satellite delivery to launch site: T-60 days
• Fueling and final checkout: T-45 days
• Integration with deployer: T-30 days
• Final functional tests: T-14 days
• Launch readiness review: T-7 days

Post-Launch Activities:

• Separation and initial acquisition: L+15 minutes
• First ground station contact: L+90 minutes
• Orbit determination: L+24 hours
• Payload commissioning begins: L+7 days
• Calibration and validation: L+30 days
• Operational handover: L+60 days (first launches), L+45 days (later launches)

Launch Insurance:

• Cost: 10-15% of satellite + launch costs
• Recommended for first 2-4 launches
• Self-insure for later launches with operational constellation

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5. GROUND SEGMENT COSTS

5.1 Ground Stations

Primary Ground Station (Saudi Arabia or UAE):

Component	Cost	Notes
7-11m X-band antenna	$2-3M	Data downlink reception
S-band antenna system	$0.5M	Command & telemetry
RF equipment & receivers	$1-1.5M	Multi-channel receivers
Baseband processing	$0.8-1.2M	Signal demodulation, decoding
Facility & infrastructure	$1-2M	Building, power, cooling
TOTAL Primary Station	$5.3-8.2M

Backup/Remote Ground Station:

• Cost: $3-5M (smaller antenna, shared infrastructure)
• Location: Geographically diverse within region

Commercial Ground Station Network Partnership:

• Cost: $0.5-1.5M per year operational cost
• Providers: KSAT, SSC, AWS Ground Station
• Global coverage for rapid downlink

Total Ground Station CapEx: $8-13M
Annual Ground Station OpEx: $1-2M

5.2 Mission Control Center (MCC)

Component	Cost	Notes
Control room infrastructure	$1-2M	Consoles, displays, network
Flight dynamics software	$0.5-1M	Orbit determination, maneuver planning
Spacecraft operations software	$0.8-1.2M	Command generation, telemetry monitoring
Mission planning system	$0.5-0.8M	Tasking, scheduling, conflict resolution
Cybersecurity systems	$0.3-0.5M	Network security, access control
TOTAL MCC	$3.1-5.5M

5.3 Data Processing & EarthLife Platform

Component	Cost	Notes
SAR processing cluster	$2-4M	GPU servers, storage, networking
Hyperspectral processing	$0.5-1M	Radiometric correction, atmospheric compensation
EarthLife platform development	$3-5M	Web application, APIs, databases
AI/ML algorithm development	$1-2M	Change detection, classification models
Cloud infrastructure (Year 1)	$0.5-1M	AWS/Azure hosting, data storage
TOTAL Processing/Platform	$7-13M

Annual Platform Operating Costs:

• Cloud hosting: $1-2M/year
• Software maintenance: $0.5-1M/year
• Algorithm updates: $0.3-0.5M/year

5.4 Ground Segment Summary

Subsystem	CapEx	Annual OpEx
Ground Stations	$8-13M	$1-2M
Mission Control	$3-5M	$0.5-1M
Processing/Platform	$7-13M	$2-4M
TOTAL GROUND SEGMENT	$18-31M	$4-7M

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6. TOTAL PROGRAM COST ESTIMATE

6.1 Development Phase Costs (Non-Recurring)

Item	Cost Range	Notes
System engineering & design	$5-8M	Requirements, architecture, interfaces
SAR payload development	$8-12M	Prototype, qualification, flight models
Hyperspectral payload development	$4-6M	Prototype, qualification
Spacecraft bus development	$3-5M	Structure, subsystems integration
Ground segment development	$18-31M	As detailed in Section 5
Flight software development	$2-4M	FSW, ground software
Test equipment & facilities	$2-3M	Environmental test chambers, RF test
SUBTOTAL NRE	$42-69M

6.2 Production Phase Costs (Recurring)

Item	Quantity	Unit Cost	Total Cost
SAR satellites	8	$5.0M	$40M
Hyperspectral satellites	8	$3.0M	$24M
Launch services	8	$1.0M	$8M
Launch contingency (20%)	-	-	$1.6M
Launch insurance (first 4)	4	$0.8M	$3.2M
SUBTOTAL Recurring	-	-	$76.8M

6.3 Operations Phase Costs (5-Year Mission)

Item	Annual Cost	5-Year Total
Ground station operations	$1-2M	$5-10M
Mission operations team	$3-5M	$15-25M
Data processing & platform	$2-4M	$10-20M
Satellite operations	$1-2M	$5-10M
Maintenance & upgrades	$1-2M	$5-10M
SUBTOTAL Operations (5-year)	-	$40-75M

6.4 Program Management & Contingency

Item	Calculation	Cost
Program management (10%)	10% of development + production	$12-15M
Systems engineering (8%)	8% of technical costs	$10-12M
Unallocated contingency (15%)	15% of total above	$25-30M
SUBTOTAL PM & Contingency	-	$47-57M

6.5 TOTAL PROGRAM COST SUMMARY

Phase	Cost Range	Percentage
Development (NRE)	$42-69M	18-23%
Production & Launch	$77-85M	30-34%
Ground Segment	$18-31M	8-10%
Operations (5-year)	$40-75M	17-25%
PM & Contingency	$47-57M	20-21%
TOTAL PROGRAM COST	$224-317M	100%

Most Likely Estimate (50th percentile): $265M

6.6 Cost Per Satellite Analysis

Total Cost per Satellite (amortized):

• Total program cost: $265M
• Number of satellites: 16
• Cost per satellite: $16.6M (including ground segment, operations, management)

Marginal Cost per Satellite (production only):

• SAR satellite: $5M + $1M launch = $6M
• Hyperspectral satellite: $3M + $1M launch = $4M
• Average: $5M per additional satellite

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7. FUNDING REQUIREMENTS AND PHASING

7.1 Capital Requirements by Year

Year	Phase	Activities	Capital Required
2024-2025	Development	System design, prototype development	$35-50M
2026	Production & IOC	First 4 satellites, 2 launches, IOC	$45-65M
2027	Constellation Buildup	8 satellites, 4 launches	$60-80M
2028-2029	FOC & Operations	4 satellites, 2 launches, full ops	$50-70M
2030+	Sustained Operations	Annual operations, upgrades	$8-15M/year

Peak Funding Year: 2027 ($60-80M)

7.2 Funding Sources

Completed:

• Seed Round (2025): $2.6M
• Grants & Non-Dilutive: ~$0.3M
• Total Raised to Date: $2.9M

Required Additional Funding:

• Series A (2025-2026): $40-60M
• Series B (2027): $80-120M
• Series C / Strategic (2028): $60-100M
• Total Additional Required: $180-280M

Alternative Funding Scenarios:

Scenario 1 - Venture Capital + Strategic Investors:

• Series A: $50M (led by TONOMUS, regional VCs)
• Series B: $100M (international VCs, strategic corporates)
• Series C: $80M (late-stage VCs, potential IPO prep)

Scenario 2 - Government + Sovereign Wealth:

• Saudi Space Commission investment: $100M
• PIF (Saudi Arabia) or Mubadala (UAE): $100M
• Commercial investors: $50M

Scenario 3 - Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT):

• Upfront government purchase: $200M
• Commercial operations: Revenue-funded
• Technology transfer to Saudi entity: Year 5

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8. RETURN ON INVESTMENT ANALYSIS

8.1 Revenue Projections

Year 1-2 (IOC - 4 satellites):

• SAR imagery sales: $5-8M
• Hyperspectral data: $2-3M
• Government contracts: $3-5M
• Total Annual Revenue: $10-16M

Year 3-4 (Partial FOC - 12 satellites):

• SAR imagery sales: $15-25M
• Hyperspectral data: $5-8M
• Government contracts: $8-12M
• Analytics services: $3-5M
• Total Annual Revenue: $31-50M

Year 5+ (Full FOC - 16 satellites):

• SAR imagery sales: $25-40M
• Hyperspectral data: $8-12M
• Government contracts: $12-18M
• Analytics services: $5-10M
• Total Annual Revenue: $50-80M

5-Year Cumulative Revenue: $150-250M

8.2 Break-Even Analysis

Total Investment: $265M
Annual Revenue at FOC: $65M (midpoint)
Annual Operating Costs: $10M
Annual EBITDA: $55M

Break-Even Timeline:

• Cumulative EBITDA break-even: Year 7-8 of operations
• Cash flow positive: Year 4-5 (operational phase)

IRR (10-year horizon): 15-25% (venture capital acceptable range)

8.3 Strategic Value Beyond Financial Returns

1. Import Substitution Value: $500M+ (10-year cumulative savings from reduced imagery imports)
2. Technology IP Value: $50-100M (SAR sensor, processing algorithms, platform)
3. Strategic Autonomy: Priceless (independent access to EO data)
4. Ecosystem Development: $200M+ (spin-off companies, skilled workforce, supply chain)

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9. RISK ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION

9.1 Technical Risks

Risk	Probability	Impact	Mitigation
SAR sensor development delays	Medium	High	Leverage TRL 9 technology, SSX-1 validation
Launch failures	Low	Very High	Launch insurance, constellation redundancy
Orbital debris collision	Low	High	Collision avoidance system, tracking
Ground station capacity	Medium	Medium	Commercial network partnerships

9.2 Financial Risks

Risk	Probability	Impact	Mitigation
Series B funding shortfall	Medium	Very High	Government backing, pre-sales contracts
Cost overruns (>25%)	Medium	High	Contingency reserves, fixed-price contracts
Revenue below projections	Medium	Medium	Diversified customer base, government anchor
Currency fluctuations	Low	Medium	Multi-currency contracts, hedging

9.3 Schedule Risks

Risk	Probability	Impact	Mitigation
SpaceX Transporter delays	Medium	Medium	Book multiple launch slots, flexible manifest
Satellite production delays	Medium	High	Parallel production lines, component inventory
Regulatory approval delays	Low	Medium	Early engagement with CST, SSC
Ground segment delays	Low	Low	Modular deployment, commercial partnerships

Overall Program Risk: MEDIUM (manageable with proper execution)

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10. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

10.1 Key Findings

1. Total Program Cost of $265M is competitive compared to traditional government programs ($500M-1B+ for similar capability)

2. Rideshare launch strategy reduces costs by 95% compared to dedicated launches ($8M vs $134M)

3. Phased deployment over 2.5 years balances technical risk with capital efficiency

4. Revenue potential of $50-80M annually at full operational capability provides attractive returns

5. Strategic value exceeds financial returns through import substitution and technological sovereignty

10.2 Recommendations

Technical:

1. Proceed with SSX-1 flight validation to de-risk spaceborne SAR development
2. Lock in SpaceX Transporter launch slots for 2026-2028 missions
3. Establish ground station partnerships early to reduce CapEx
4. Develop EarthLife platform in parallel with satellite development

Financial:

1. Target Series A of $50M in Q4 2025 / Q1 2026
2. Secure anchor government customer contracts for revenue visibility
3. Negotiate multi-launch discount with SpaceX (~10-15% savings)
4. Consider strategic partnerships with Saudi Aramco, NEOM for use cases

Programmatic:

1. Maintain 15-20% contingency reserve for schedule flexibility
2. Implement earned value management for cost/schedule tracking
3. Establish independent technical review board for milestone gates
4. Develop constellation replenishment strategy for Year 6+

10.3 Path Forward

Immediate Next Steps (2025):

• Complete SSX-1 flight campaign and validate sensor performance
• Close Series A funding round ($40-60M target)
• Award satellite manufacturing contracts with fixed-price terms
• Book SpaceX Transporter launch slots for 2026-2028

Critical Path Items:

1. Series A funding close → enables satellite production start
2. SAR payload CDR → gates flight model fabrication
3. First satellite delivery → enables first launch
4. IOC achievement → enables revenue operations

Success Metrics:

• On-time IOC: Q3 2026
• On-budget development: <10% variance
• First revenue: Q4 2026
• FOC achievement: Q1 2029
• Profitability: Year 5

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APPENDICES

Appendix A: Cost Comparison with Competitors

Company	Satellites	Satellite Cost	Launch Cost	Total Program
SARsatX	16	$64M	$8M	$265M
ICEYE (est.)	30	$90-120M	$15-20M	$300-400M
Capella (est.)	36	$108-144M	$18-24M	$350-500M
Umbra (planned)	32	$96-128M	$16-22M	$300-450M

Note: SARsatX benefits from hybrid SAR/hyperspectral approach reducing average per-satellite cost.

Appendix B: Launch Pricing Sensitivity Analysis

Scenario	Cost per kg	16 Satellites Total	Savings vs Baseline
Baseline	$6,500	$8.2M	-
Negotiated discount	$5,850	$7.4M	$0.8M (10%)
Volume discount	$5,525	$7.0M	$1.2M (15%)
Dedicated Falcon 9 (2×)	$42,000	$134M	-$126M (-1,534%)

Appendix C: Orbital Parameters - Detailed Tables

(Comprehensive ephemeris data for all 16 satellites available upon request)

Appendix D: Acronyms and Abbreviations

• ADCS: Attitude Determination and Control System
• CapEx: Capital Expenditure
• CDR: Critical Design Review
• CST: Communications, Space & Technology Commission
• EBITDA: Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization
• EO: Earth Observation
• FOC: Full Operational Capability
• HSI: HyperSpectral Imager
• IOC: Initial Operational Capability
• IRR: Internal Rate of Return
• LEO: Low Earth Orbit
• LTAN: Local Time of Ascending Node
• MCC: Mission Control Center
• MENA: Middle East and North Africa
• NRE: Non-Recurring Engineering
• OpEx: Operating Expenditure
• PIF: Public Investment Fund (Saudi Arabia)
• RAAN: Right Ascension of Ascending Node
• SAR: Synthetic Aperture Radar
• SSC: Saudi Space Commission
• SSO: Sun-Synchronous Orbit
• TRL: Technology Readiness Level

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Document Prepared By: SARsatX Financial Planning & Systems Engineering Teams
Date: October 27, 2025
Version: 1.0
Classification: Company Confidential

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References

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors acknowledge the support of King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), the TAQADAM Startup Accelerator, the Saudi Space Commission, the UAE Space Agency, the National Technology Development Program (NTDP), TONOMUS, Wa'ed Ventures, Access Bridge Ventures, KAUST Innovation Ventures, Flat6Labs, Seraphim Space, and the entire SARsatX engineering and business development teams.

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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES

Ahmed Alzubairi (Ph.D. Candidate) is Co-Founder and Chief Executive Officer of SARsatX Arabia. He received his B.Sc. in Electrical Engineering (Electronics & Communications) and M.Sc. in Industrial Engineering. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering with focus on spacecraft formation flying control. His research interests include satellite constellation design, mission planning, and autonomous space systems. He participated in Y Combinator (2022) and has held positions at NEOM and MiSK Entrepreneurship.

Muhannad Almutiry (Ph.D.) is Co-Founder and Chief Business Officer of SARsatX Arabia. He received his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Dayton, Ohio, in 2017. He is currently Associate Professor at Northern Border University, Saudi Arabia, where he serves as Dean of Admission and Registration and Head of the Remote Sensing Research Unit. His research interests include Synthetic Aperture Radar, radar tomography, RF imaging, signal processing, machine learning for radar systems, and IoT sensing. He has published over 20 peer-reviewed papers and holds a U.S. patent in 3D RF tomographic imaging. He has over 15 years of combined academic and industry experience in radar sensor systems.

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Manuscript received October 27, 2025

IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing