Abstract—Satellites in Geostationary Orbit (GEO) provide a number of commercial, government, and military services around the world, offering everything from surveillance and monitoring to video calls and internet access. However a dramatic lowering of the cost-per-kilogram to space has led to a recent explosion in real and planned constellations in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) of smaller satellites.
These constellations are managed remotely and it is important to consider a scenario in which an attacker gains control over the constituent satellites. In this paper we aim to understand what damage this attacker could cause, using the satellites to generate interference.
To ground our analysis, we simulate a number of existing and planned LEO constellations against an example GEO constellation, and evaluate the relative effectiveness of each. Our model shows that with conservative power estimates, both current and planned constellations could disrupt GEO satellite services at every groundstation considered, with effectiveness varying considerably between locations.
We analyse different patterns of interference, how they reflect the structures of the constellations creating them, and how effective they might be against a number of legitimate services. We found that real-time usage (e.g. calls, streaming) would be most affected, with 3 constellation designs able to generate thousands of outages of 30 seconds or longer over the course of the day across all groundstations.
For air forces outside the major powers of US, NATO, and Russia, the development of active electronic scanned array (AESA) radars for
acquisition without political strings has driven the demand for indigenous development.
As usual, the Israelis lead the way with their EL/M-2052 with similar functions to the ELM-2032 mechanicaly scanned array. India LRDE has followed with their UTTAM Mk2 AESA. Sweden's Saab,
a provider of military defense and civil security services and solutions, has
successfully completed the first air trials with its new fighter X-bandActive Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, which
will be offered as a new addition to Saab’s PS-05/A radar family. AESA radars have been develped by Hanwha Systems for South Korea' fighters and frigates.
Table 1
Characteristics of EL/M-2032-2052 from
ITI Brochure
Mode/Characteristic
Submode
Notes
Supports all avionic interfaces
Full software control
Small size,
very light weight
requires very low power and
cooling resources
<100 kg (220 lb)
Air-to-Air
(detection and tracking range up
to 120 NM):
Range
While Search (RWS)
Single
Target Track (STT)
Track
While Scan (TWS)
Situation
Awareness Mode (SAM)
Dual
Target Track (DTT)
Raid
Assessment (RA)
Air
Combat Modes (ACM):
Vertical
Scan
Slewable
ACM
HUD
ACM
Boresight
Adaptive
Boresight
Air-to-Ground
(Imaging and surface target
detection up to 120 NM):
High
resolution mapping - SAR mode with 3000x3000 image pixels
SMTI
over RBM or SAR
SMTT
over RBM or SAR
Real
Beam Map (RBM)
Air-to-Ground
Ranging (AGR)
Beacon
(BCN)
Weather
(WA)
Terrain
Avoidance
Air-to-Sea
(detection, tracking and
classification up to 200 NM):
Sea
Search (SS)
Sea
Targets TWS
Sea
Target Continuous Track (STCT)
Inverse
SAR (ISAR) Sea target Classification
Range
Signature (RS) Sea target Classification
Wikipedia
The EL/M-2032 is an advanced pulse Doppler, multimode planar
array fire-control radar intended for multi-role fighter aircraft originated
from the Lavi project. It is suitable for air-to-air and air-to-surface
modes.[1]
As of 2009, Elta has integrated this radar system into the
Sea Harrier, A-4, F-4, F-5, F-16, FA-50, Mirage and MiG-21 fighters.[1] It has
also been used in the HAL Tejas fighter.[2]
Specifications
·Weights: Max Weight 100 kg (220 lb)[1]
·Performance: Max Range for air to air targets -
222 km (120 nm),[3]
·Max Range for air to ground targets - 222 km
(120 nm),[3]
·Max Range for air to sea targets - 370 km (200
nm)[3]
ELM-2032 is operating in
the X-Band
multimode fire control radar for multi-missions fighters. It uses a
mechanically tilted slotted waveguide antenna. It is designed for air-to-air,
air-to-ground and air-to-sea missions. Modular hardware design, full software
control and flexible avionic interfaces, ensure that the radar can be installed
in most fighter aircraft and may be customized to meet the most stringent user
requirements. It has been fitted to F-16s, including Israel’s own fleet. It has
also been used to upgrade V/STOL Sea Harriers, F-5E/F Tiger light fighters, and
F-4 Phantom, Kfir C10s, and Jaguar strike fighters around the world; and was
picked for South Korea’s TA-50 and India Tejas lightweight fighters.
The radar is partially replaced by the successor model ELM-2052
with higher power and range.
The Elta ELM-2052 is operating in
the X-Band
airborne fire control radar designed for air-to-air superiority and advanced
strike missions. The radar is based on fully solid-state active phased array
technology. The ELM-2052 is an upgraded version of the ELM-2032.
Its antenna can be fitted with either 300, or 500, or 1500 active Gallium-
Arsenide TR-Modules.
The ELM-2052 is suitable for a number of aircrafts, e.g. in McDonnell
Douglas F-15I and Kfir C10 used in Israeli Airforce, Russian MiG-29, French
Mirage 2000, Indian Jaguar DARIN III, and LCA Tejas. Its weighs about
130 … 180 kg and consumes 4 … 10 kVA, depending on the design
configuration. It can detect targets at very long-range while tracking up to
64 targets, and, simultaneously engaging several targets with missiles.
The ELM-2052 is an advanced
Fire Control Radar (FCR) designed for air-to-air superiority and strike
missions, based on fully solid-state Active Electronically Scanning Array
(AESA) technology, enabling the radar to achieve
1.long
detection ranges,
2.high
mission reliability and
3.multi-target
tracking capabilities.
The ELM-2052 radar provides
simultaneous modes of operation supporting multi-mission capabilities for
air-to-air, air-to-ground, and air-to-sea operation modes, and weapon
deployment.
The Radar has a peak power of ~ 10KW+
and has around 1500 TR Modules (Though its a modular radar and TRM can be
increased and decreased based on the requirement) so its very much implied as
Alec speculated that the Radar has a gallium nitrite variant as well, GaAs
based TR modules itself have a range of around 180–250 KM for the 3 Sq M RCS
·ELTA 2052 AESA Radar can do multi missions. They
can perform various tracking during operation SEA LAND AIR Threats at a time.
·The range of elta 2052 is near about 290 km
depending upon the variants of radar and TR Modules.
·It's can track 64 Targets and engage with 4
simultaneously.
The Israel’s Aerospace Industries
(IAI) subsidiary Elta is developing an AESA version of its airborne fire
control radar family designated EL/M-2052. This radar utilizes an array of
transmit/receive solid-state modules designed to dynamically shape the
radiation pattern using ultra-low side-lobe antenna. The radar supports pulse
doppler and two axes monopulse guard channel, providing all aspect, look-down
shoot-down performance, operating simultaneous multi-mode air-to-air superiority
and advanced strike missions. The radar is based on solid-state, active phase
array technology enabling the radar to achieve a longer detection range, high
mission reliability and a multi-target tracking capability of up to 64 targets.
It can also support high resolution target identification and separation,
performing raid assessment at long range. as well as surface moving target
detection and ranging. In the anti-shipping role the new radar provides
long-range target detection, classification and tracking.
With high peak power the radar
support simultaneous multi-mode operation. It can detect targets at very long
range while tracking up to 64 targets, and, simultaneously engaging several
targets with missiles. In ground attack missions the radar supports mapping,
navigation and high resolution imagery (SAR), supported with Real Beam Map
(RBM) and Doppler Beam Sharpening (DBS) modes. The EL/M-2052 is designed as a
modular system, with built in growth capability, computation and memory
reserves. Its weighs about 130 – 180kg and consumes 4 – 10KVA, depending on the
design configuration.
A Chinese avionics marketing and
manufacturing firm has put Israeli-US relations under a microscope after
marketing an advanced fire control radar identical to Elta's ELM-2052 active
electronically scanned array (AESA).
Elta is the same Israeli state-owned
subsidiary at the heart of an incendiary chapter in US-Israel relations that
continues to reverberate 15 years after Washington forced Israel to cancel a
controversial Phalcon airborne early warning aircraft contract with
Beijing.
Beijing-based NAV
Technology claims https://nav.sell.everychina.com/products.html
in its 63-page product catalog to
offer an unnamed AESA radar that is identical to the ELM-2052. The two-page
description appears to be identical to current ELM-2052 product brochures
distributed by Elta, including a photograph of the radar. Elta is a subsidiary
of the state-owned Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI).
HAL sticks with ELM-2052 AESA Radar for Tejas Mk1A, hints at advance and
better derivate – Indian Defence Research Wing
3-4 minutes
SOURCE: IDRW NEWS NETWORK
With latest media reports hinting that indigenously developed UTAAM AESA
Airborne AESA Fire Control Radar (FCR ) will be ready for integration and
trials with new upcoming updated Tejas Mk1A within next one year, HAL Sources
close to idrw.org have confirmed that the management is still sticking with the
Israeli ELM-2052 AESA Fire Control Radar for Tejas Mk1A program and swapping
Israeli AESA FCR with Indian AESA FCR is not been considered for time being for
various reasons.
HAL source close to idrw.org confirms that LRDE and DRDO have kept IAF and
HAL in the loop about progress made by the UTAAM Team on the LCA LSP-2 which
has been Test-bed aircraft but the Test-bed (LSP-2) is now down for regular
maintenance and weapons modes are yet to be activated and its software
integration is yet to be performed which means Radar will take time to mature.
When asked about UTAM AESA FCR performing better than the ELM-2052 AESA FCR
in developmental trials, idrw.org was informed that EL/M-2052 Active
Electronically Scanning Array (AESA) equipped onboard the Jaguar DARIN III
fighter jets of the air force have smaller antenna size and Power supply due to
under-powered engine and smaller nose cone size found on the Jaguar fighter
jets which came initially with very basic small radar system in the ’70s.
idrw.org was given hints that Tejas Mk1A will be getting advance derivative
of the EL/M-2052 AESA FCR which has possible bigger antenna size and with
additional Power supply option then what was procured by the HAL previously for
the Jaguar DARIN III fighter jets. ELTA Website maintains that EL/M-2052 can
weight from 80kg to 180kg depending on the size of the antenna used on the
aircraft and requires a power supply from 3-10 kVA again directly related to
antenna size which explains the claim made to idrw.org also confirming that
their exits Modular hardware and software growth potential of the Radar on the
offer.
HAL’s Mission & Combat System Research & Design Centre will be in
charge to work closely with ELTA engineers for integration and testing of the
EL/M-2052 AESA FCR when it is supplied for integration in 2021-22. ELTA
engineers have a past history of working closely with the HAL engineers in
Bangalore for MMR/2032 Hybrid Radar used on the Tejas Mk1 and ELM-2052 on
Jaguar DARIN III fighter jets, they have assured full cooperation also on Tejas
Mk1A program.
Uttam Mk2 Aesa Radar to get “Game Changer” rotating repositioner – Indian
Defence Research Wing
2-3 minutes
SOURCE: IDRW NEWS NETWORK
Captor-E AESA FCR on rotating repositioner
In our previous report, idrw.org had revealed that DRDO’s Electronics and
Radar Development Establishment (LRDE) has started work on the development of
upgraded Uttam Active electronically scanned array (AESA) fire-control radar
(FCR) with the main antenna incorporating 992 arrays of TR modules instead of
780TR modules that is on the Uttam Mk1 radar antenna meant for Tejas Mk1A
program.
Recently idrw.org has learned from the fresh tenders that has been issued
that the Uttam Mk2 antenna will be mounted on a swashplate repositioner that
enables the electronically scanned antenna, which is normally fixed in a
forward position on a fighter aircraft, to be slewed to the left and to the
right to increase its field-of-view this comes as a huge benefit during BVR
[Beyond Visual Range] engagements when you don’t want to point the aircraft
directly into a specific area.
The swashplate repositioner allows AESA radar to be pointed at the target
without the aircraft’s nose pointing at it which minimizes the possibility of
an opponent launching a missile toward the aircraft. The swashplate allows the
pilot to take a beyond-visual-range missile shot and then turn 90 degrees while
still giving mid-course updates to the missile fired.
Uttam Mk1 will be incorporated from the 21st Tejas Mk1A that goes into
production from 2025-26 onwards. Uttam Mk2 is much smaller but packs more TR
modules catering to the reduced nose section of the LCA AF-Mk2 with improved
search and tracking capacities with the inclusion of the swashplate
repositioner, Uttam Mk2 gets a large field of view that makes it possible to
have a 140-degree search volume within a 200-degree look-angle around the nose
of the aircraft.
Uttam AESA radar: Everything you need to know — Indian Defence News
by defenceupdate
8-10 minutes
The home-grown Uttam Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar
developed by Electronics & Radar Development Establishment (LRDE) seems to
be making the right moves to get the attention of the Indian Air Force (IAF).
With the addition of AESA radar being one of the key features of Tejas MK1A,
LRDE hopes that Uttam can even meet the schedules of the upgraded programme.
It has already completed more than 100 hours of flying on a hired aircraft
and nearly 25 hours on Tejas test platforms. It is now confirmed that Uttam’s
air-to-air mode and its sub-mode functionalities have been already tested.
Uttam is in competition with the Israeli Elta radar and the official word is
not yet out on the question of how many Tejas MK1As (total 83) will be fitted
with the desi technology.
Uttam Radar
The Uttam is an advanced active phased array radar (APAR) system being
developed by Electronics and Radar Development Establishment (LRDE) for the HAL
Tejas and other combat aircraft of Indian Air Force. Development of Uttam started
in 2008 and it was first unveiled at Aero India 2009. Uttam is slated to be a
successor to hybrid passive electronically scanned array radar EL/M-2032
currently equipping LCA Tejas. Radar is currently being integrated with an LCA.
Difference between AESA and PESA radar:
Conventional passive phased array radars have a single high power RF source
(usually Travelling Wave Tube) at ‘back-end’ and RF signals are fed into
slotted array antenna via a waveguide or coaxial tube. Introduction of the
phase difference between each transceiver element allows the radiation pattern
to be steered electronically. In the reception cycle, a PESA antenna cannot
transmit. PESA radar has a light antenna which can be mounted on a mechanical
steering mechanism thereby giving it a wide frontal coverage area or FOV.
Active phased array antennas have transmitter-receiver modules or
transceiver module (TRM) built right into the antenna. A single array may
feature hundreds or thousands of TRMs depending upon antenna size and operational
requirement. Each TRM can either operate independently or under a hierarchy.
Each TRM can generate and radiate its own signal of different phase and
frequency as required, thus the transmitted signal is wideband in nature.
Unlike PESA radar, signals can be transmitted and received simultaneously in an
AESA radar. Active phased array antennas are usually heavier than slotted
planner array antenna so it is difficult to mount them on a steering mechanism,
which limits their field of view (FOV). Electronic steering is faster compared
to mechanical steering but at high steering angle (90-120 degree) it may also
increase side lobe power which is undesirable. FOV limitation can be mitigated
by using a swash-plate repositioner.
Various aspects of Uttam AESA radar:
UTTAM has capabilities like, Identification friend or foe (IFF), electronic
and communication support measures, C-band line-of-sight and Ku-band SATCOM
datalinks, etc., similar to those on the AWACS and Conformal Airborne Early
Warning & Control Systems (CAEW) systems.
The important modes of operation of the UTTAM radar system are the surface
surveillance and the air surveillance. The sensor has the abilities to search,
track-while-scan, priority tracking, high performance tracking, etc. In
priority tracking, the targets will be placed in full track mode even if these
cross the primary surveillance area. In high performance tracking, additional
measurements are made to improve the tracking accuracy. Utilizing active
aperture technology, the radar provides a fast-beam agile system that can
operate in several modes concurrently.
Uttam features an active phased array (APAR) which gives it superior
scanning performance over legacy passive phased array radar. Unlike most
contemporary radars, Uttam features Quad TRM i.e. a single plank consists of 4
TRMs. It allows the array to be more densely packed. Each TRM is equipped with
low noise power amplifier, built-in test facility, digital phase-gain, and side
lobe control elements. The inert model displayed at Aero India 2015 had ~184
QTRMs i.e. 736 TRMs. The array temperature is controlled by a liquid coolant
circulation system. The QTRM configuration makes Uttam maintenance friendly.
The radar can be scaled up or down depending on antenna size requirement.
Uttam’s QTRM configuration
The radar is capable of tracking 100 targets simultaneously and engage 6 of
them by SARH/ARH missiles in high priority tracking mode. For comparison, Elta
EL/M-2052 is capable of tracking 64 targets in TWS mode.
In 2015 Uttam was stated to be capable of tracking a target having RCS of
2m2 at a distance of 92 kilometers. According to the new reports, the range has
been increased to 150 kilometers for the target of the same RCS. In GMTT mode 2
targets can be tracked.
Uttam has over 16 different types of operational modes and the radar can
operate in multiple modes simultaneously by changing modes pulse-to-pulse which
gives the pilot exceptional situational awareness and mission flexibility.
LRDE hopes that Uttam can even meet the schedules of the upgraded programme.
It has already completed more than 100 hours of flying on a hired aircraft
and nearly 25 hours on Tejas test platforms. It is now confirmed that Uttam’s
air-to-air mode and its sub-mode functionalities have been already tested.
LRDE is hopeful that if all trials are completed in the decided time frame
it might still be selected to be used on last batches of MK-1A if desired bythe
customer. UTTAM Aesa Radar is most likely will be refined and re-tuned to be
used on Indigenous developed Medium Weight Fighter (MCW)/(MWF) which was
previously known as Tejas MK-2.
LRDE reportedly also has been tasked to develop a more powerful variant for
India’s 5th Generation AMCA Fighter jet in near future.
FOCUS ON AIRBORNE RADAR FOR TEJAS
Hardware has already been realized for this radar which has a range of 100
km against small fighter sized targets and rooftop testing has been completed.
Though the Uttam AESA currently weighs 120 kg which is some 40 kg more than the
current MMR, there will be no problem in integrating it with the LCA Mk-II
which can easily carry a radar of this weight. It is a 3D radar for fighters, a
MMR follow on, the Active Phased Array Radar (APAR) project aims to field a
fully fledged operational AESA fire control radar for the expected Mark-2
version of the Tejas.
This will be the second airborne AESA program after the AEW&C project
and intends to transfer the success DRDO has achieved in the Ground based radar
segment to airborne systems. The overall airborne program aims to prevent this
technology gap from developing, with a broad based program to bring DRDO up to
par with international developers in airborne systems: both fire control and
surveillance. The earlier versions of radars has mechanically moving parts,
whose output was painfully slow when compared to the new generation electronic
technology. LCA also has a sophisticated fly by wire system and glass cockpit.
AESA in the LCAs will obviously have a lower range, but it will be well
integrated within the IAF network, and give a quantum technology jump to IAF’s
combat capabilities. Notably, the 36 Rafales being acquired by IAF in the
Government-to-Government deal will also have the AESA radar, developed by
Thales.
FUTURISTIC 360°-CAPABLE ANTENNA
Preliminary studies have been carried out at Center for Airborne Studies
(CABS) for a possible optimal design of a futuristic antenna with the desirable
360°-vision for roles identified under various war situations. The unique
aerodynamically-shaped delta radome will blend with the aerodynamics of the
platform-aircraft to provide the required radar performance together with
better operational economy by virtue of its better aerodynamics, reduced
weight, and better or similar electro-magnetics. This radar may be dorsal or
conformal fuselage mounted doubts still remain as not much is known about its
specifications or configuration.
The foregoing summarises the efforts made by DRDO towards development of the
AESA radar for its current and future AEW&C applications as well as for
realising essential allied technologies. The necessary core competence to
evolve futuristic applications in AESA radar has thus been adequately
established.
Saab Completes First Air Trials of its New X-band AESA Radar
Saab,
a provider of military defense and civil security services and solutions, has
successfully completed the first air trials with its new fighter X-bandActive Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, which
will be offered as a new addition to Saab’s PS-05/A radar family. The new fighter X-band AESA radar
performs better against small targets, has enhanced Electronic Counter-Countermeasures
(ECCM) capability as well as an improved ability to support more advanced
weaponry.
The radar is designed for fighter aircrafts and can be adapted to a variety
of platforms. As Saab previously announced, a version of the new AESA
antenna has been sold to a U.S. Government customer. This is an important step
in the development of Saab’s fighter AESA radar. It has unveiled great
possibilities for the radar, and its modular, adaptable and scalable design
means it can also be used for a range of other applications.
The host aircraft during the air trial was a Gripen D aircraft, which is
currently offered with Saab’s latest Mk4 radar. The new version of the radar
can be offered to Gripen C/D operators, as an upgrade. The new AESA radar uses
GaN, a material that gives lower power consumption and improved heat
resistance. This enables wider bandwidth and greater reliability, availability,
and efficiency.
The trials were successful and collected data while detecting and tracking
objects.
South Korea's AESA Radar Technology to Benefit ROK Navy Programs - Naval
News
Authors
4-5 minutes
The latest (01/2022) design of the future Ulsan-Class FFX Batch III frigate
of the ROK Navy. DAPA image
AESA radar technology will be applied to most South Korean upcoming defense
programs such as FFX Batch III, KDDX, KF-21 and L-SAM...
The AESA radar will be placed on the next Ulsan-class frigates (FFX Batch III), the first one of which will be
delivered to the ROK Navy in 2024. The new radar by Hanwha Systems will improve
anti-air and anti-ship operational capabilities. The Ulsan-class FFX Batch III
will be 4,000 tons ships, meaning that the new FFX would be equivalent to the
in-service Gwanggaeto the Great-class (also known as KDX I) destroyers
in terms of firepower and defense capability.
Ulsan-class FFX Batch III Frigate Integrated
Mast by Hanwha featuring four phased arrays.
In addition to the FFX, the next-generation of Korean destroyers known as
KDDX will also have the AESA radar by Hanwha Systems. They will thus be able to
detect and monitor up to 4,000 targets simultaneously thanks to the four phased
array placed on each side of their integrated mast.
KDDX destroyer integrated
mast by Hanwha featuring four phased arrays.
The Korean military and DTaQ (Defense Agency for Technology and Quality)
explained that the previous destroyers used spinning radars that update target
information by rotating 360 degrees for beaming. As the spinning radar had
difficulties detecting inbound air threats such as fighter jets and missiles at
very high speed, South Korea developed its own AESA non-rotating radar.
A key of the AESA radar are the transmitter and receiver (T/R) modules that
simultaneously detects several targets at a distance far away. Small modules
gathered in the AESA radar functions as separate radars that give the user
3D-based target information with distance, altitude, and bearing, even enabling
missile guidance and interception or electronic warfare. Unlike the spinning
radar which is vulnerable to enemy threats, the AESA radar can be installed
inside the mast and easily repaired since it only requires the replacement of a
single module if this one malfunctions.
KDDX I Mast scale model on
Hanwha Systems booth during MADEX
Local reports added that the naval variant of L-SAM (long-range surface-to-air
missile) will have the K-AESA radar, since the DAPA (Defense Acquisition
Program Administration) gave a green light to the development of naval L-SAM
for air defense at sea.
Hanwha
Systems developed the AESA radar for the KF-21 fighter. Hanwha Systems image.
There had been domestic and overseas concerns that South Korea’s development
and deployment of localized AESA radar will be challenging after the United
States refused to provide Seoul with technical transfer of AESA-related
knowledge, but South Korea has become the world’s 12th country that
developed its own AESA radar in 2020, four years after the ADD (Agency for
Defense Development) and Hanwha Systems started its development projects. Initial AESA radar development by Hanwha Systems was for South
Korea’s domestic stealth fighter project known as KF-21.
Daehan Lee is a political, security affairs researcher who worked at the U.S.
Embassy in Seoul and the People Power Party. Prior to his work in politics and
diplomacy, Lee served for the Republic of Korea Navy as a secretary to the Vice
Admiral and a translator for Master Chief Petty Officers of the Navy, shortly
working at the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He writes about Korean naval acquisition
and development. Fields of interest include maritime security, defense
acquisition, Korean politics and foreign policy.
