Secret city near Dubai discovered underneath empty desert

Ancient "Snake Cult" Civilization Thrived for 5,000 Years in Arabian Desert, Revealing Sophisticated Metallurgy and Trade Networks

Satellite radar and AI help archaeologists uncover one of the Middle East's most enigmatic archaeological sites, challenging assumptions about ancient desert societies

In the shifting sands of Dubai's Rub' al-Khali desert, archaeologists have uncovered evidence of a remarkable civilization that flourished for nearly five millennia, from around 2600 BCE to the early Islamic period. The site of Saruq Al-Hadid—literally "the path of iron"—is rewriting our understanding of ancient Arabian societies and their sophisticated adaptation to one of Earth's harshest environments.

The discovery began with a flash of intuition. In 2002, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, ruler of Dubai, was flying his helicopter across the vast Empty Quarter when he noticed unusual discoloration in the sand below. What he had spotted turned out to be ancient metallurgical slag—the remnants of a massive industrial operation that had processed copper, bronze, iron, and gold for thousands of years.

"This site challenges everything we thought we knew about ancient Arabian societies," says Lloyd Weeks, professor of archaeology at the University of New England and director of the Saruq al-Hadid Archaeological Research Project (SHARP). "We're looking at a persistent place of gathering that attracted people from across the region for metallurgy, trade, and what appears to be ritual activities centered around snake worship."

A Desert Paradox

The location of Saruq Al-Hadid presents an archaeological puzzle. Situated 40 kilometers inland from the Persian Gulf coast, the site lacks the three essential requirements for metallurgy: accessible water sources, fuel, and ore deposits. Yet archaeologists have recovered over 200 kilograms of iron artifacts—an unprecedented quantity for an Iron Age site in southeastern Arabia—along with thousands of copper alloy objects, gold jewelry, and bronze implements.

"It's an enigma," explains Charlotte Cable, SHARP field director and adjunct researcher at the University of New England. "The site was clearly chosen for reasons beyond practical considerations. The evidence suggests that Saruq Al-Hadid held deep symbolic and religious significance, possibly serving as a pilgrimage destination where communities gathered for seasonal rituals."

The evidence for ritual activity is compelling. Archaeologists have uncovered an abundance of snake imagery on pottery and metal artifacts, including small copper-alloy snake figurines. While similar objects have been found at other sites across the UAE and Oman, Saruq Al-Hadid appears to have been either the main production center or held special significance in what researchers believe was a widespread snake cult.

Space-Age Archaeology Meets Ancient Mysteries

Modern technology is revolutionizing how archaeologists explore Saruq Al-Hadid. Researchers at Khalifa University's Environmental and Geophysical Sciences Lab have pioneered the use of satellite-borne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) combined with machine learning to detect buried archaeological features from space.

"SAR is the only satellite-based technology able to detect buried artifacts from space," explains Dr. Diana Francis, head of the ENGEOS Lab at Khalifa University. "Under optimal conditions—dry sand and bare soil like we have at Saruq Al-Hadid—L-band SAR can detect features larger than one meter that are buried less than two meters below the surface."

The team used ALOS/PALSAR-2 radar imagery complemented by high-resolution Worldview-3 multispectral images to create detailed maps of subsurface features. Their AI algorithms have already identified a previously unknown area on the opposite side of current excavations, potentially doubling the known extent of the ancient site.

Layers of Time in the Sand

Excavating Saruq Al-Hadid presents unique challenges. The site consists of more than a square kilometer of archaeological deposits buried within sand dunes up to six meters deep. To maintain stratigraphic control in the unstable sand matrix, archaeologists employ a stepping or terracing technique, carefully documenting five major cultural horizons spanning ne

 

Saruq Al-Hadid: Archaeological Evidence for a Multi-Millennial Civilization in the Rub' al-Khali Desert

Abstract

Recent archaeological investigations at Saruq Al-Hadid, located on the northeastern edge of the Rub' al-Khali desert in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, have revealed evidence of continuous human occupation spanning nearly five millennia. The site, first discovered in 2002, represents one of the most significant archaeological discoveries in southeastern Arabia, with stratified deposits containing over 12,000 unique artifacts dating from approximately 2600 BCE to the early Islamic period. This paper examines the archaeological evidence for long-term settlement patterns, technological innovation, and cultural continuity at this remarkable desert site, challenging traditional assumptions about ancient Arabian societies and their adaptation to arid environments.

Introduction

The discovery of Saruq Al-Hadid has fundamentally altered our understanding of prehistoric and historic settlement patterns in the Arabian Peninsula. The site was originally discovered by the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, while flying his helicopter across the desert in 2002, when he observed unusual coloration in the sand that proved to be ancient metallurgical slag. Subsequent investigations have revealed a complex, multi-period site that served as a center for metallurgy, trade, and possibly ritual activities across multiple millennia.

Located approximately 40 kilometers inland from the Persian Gulf coast, the site consists of more than a square kilometer of discontinuous occupation deposits incorporated within dunes up to 6 metres deep, with complex assemblages of archaeological materials spanning the Neolithic to early Islamic periods, ca. 10,000–1,000 BP. The site's strategic position on the edge of the Rub' al-Khali desert places it at the intersection of multiple ancient trade routes and ecological zones.

Chronological Framework and Cultural Sequence

Early Occupation (3rd Millennium BCE)

The Saruq Al Hadid site is considered to have been a centre of constant human habitation, trade and metallurgy from the Umm Al Nar period (2600–2000 BCE) to the Iron Age (1,000 BCE). The earliest phases of occupation, dating to the Umm an-Nar period (c. 2600-2000 BCE), are characterized by simple stone-lined hearths, ash pits, and associated post-holes indicating temporary or seasonal settlement patterns. The oldest traces of human activity date to the end of the 3rd millennium BC and include hearths, pits and evidence of seasonal settlement in the form of post-holes.

Bronze Age Development (2nd Millennium BCE)

Recent excavations at Saruq al-Hadid recovered ca. 9100 stone artefacts, including backed microliths, from an extensive and dense midden deposit of animal bone which spans the Wadi Suq period and Late Bronze Age, c. 1750–1300 BC. This period marks a significant intensification of human activity at the site, with evidence for sophisticated stone tool production alongside the development of metallurgical activities.

Among growing indications of human occupation in the coastal regions of southern and southeastern Arabia extending into the Neolithic and beyond, this study introduces new archaeological evidence, namely bifacial arrowheads and trihedral points, suggesting human presence at the Saruq Al-Hadid site in the fringe of Rub' Al Khali during the mid-Holocene period.

Iron Age Florescence (1st Millennium BCE)

Arguably its most important period of flourishing was as a metallurgical centre in the Iron Age II period (1100–600 BCE). During this period, the site emerged as a major center for copper, bronze, and iron production, with evidence for large-scale smelting operations and the production of finished goods for regional trade networks.

Material Culture and Technological Innovation

Metallurgical Evidence

The metallurgical remains from Saruq Al-Hadid represent one of the most comprehensive records of ancient Arabian metalworking. The evidence for copper metallurgy at Saruq al-Hadid comprises a major component of the material remains from the site, including copper smelting slag, semi-products (ingots) and copper-base finished artefacts, alongside copper production debris and copper 'scrap' possibly intended for recycling.

Over the course of excavations by SHARP and other projects, more than 200 kg of ferrous remains have been recovered from the site, a remarkable occurrence considering the dearth of ferrous remains from other Iron Age sites in the region. This abundance of iron artifacts suggests that Saruq Al-Hadid may have been a specialized center for iron production and working.

Stone Tool Technology

Despite the site's prominence as a metallurgical center, stone tool production continued throughout the Bronze and Iron Ages. Small cobbles of chert were imported to the site and were reduced into flakes by hard-hammer percussion. Cores were frequently rotated during knapping and the reduction strategy was ad hoc, lacking hierarchical reduction stages. The persistence of stone tool production alongside advanced metallurgy suggests a complex technological landscape where traditional and innovative technologies coexisted.

Artifacts and Trade Connections

In all, over 12,000 unique objects have been unearthed at the site. The artifact assemblage reveals extensive trade networks connecting Saruq Al-Hadid to distant regions. As well as evidence of metals from far afield such as tin, which is not found in the Gulf peninsula, carnelian beads point to links with the Indus Valley, while seals and pottery finds link to the Sumerians of Mesopotamia.

Ritual and Symbolic Significance

Snake Cult Evidence

One of the most intriguing aspects of Saruq Al-Hadid is the abundant evidence for ritual activities, particularly those associated with snake symbolism. An abundance of pottery and metal artifacts have given rise to speculation of possibly identifying the site as a centre of snake worship. Artefacts from the site are often characterised by the use of snake imagery, seen for example on ceramic vessels and in the form of small copper-alloy snake figurines.

Bronze snakes found at the site, as well as pottery decorated with snake motifs, provide some of the many mysteries of Saruq Al Hadid. In smaller numbers, these have been found elsewhere in the UAE and Oman, specifically at Qusais, Rumailah, Bithnah, Masafi and Salut, but Saruq Al Hadid was either the main centre for production or was of great significance to what may have been a snake cult.

Regional Cult Center

Archaeologists have envisaged Saruq al-Hadid as an important industrial site that may have held additional significance as a cultic centre, a site of pilgrimage for populations from across the region and/or a key node in regional exchange systems. This interpretation is supported by the unusual location of the site in a desert environment lacking the basic requirements for metallurgy (water, fuel, and ore), suggesting that the site's selection may have been driven by religious or symbolic considerations.

Spatial Analysis and Site Organization

Spatially, the majority of the ferrous remains at Saruq al-Hadid come from the central sector of the site. SHARP excavations have identified distinctions in the spatial distribution of different categories between the northern (trenches F-U8 and F-V8) and southern parts (trenches F-R3 and southwards) of the central sector, suggesting organized activity areas and specialized zones for different metallurgical processes.

The extensive horizontal stratigraphy of the site, covering more than a square kilometer, reveals complex patterns of site use over time. Given the large size of Saruq al-Hadid and its considerable 'horizontal stratigraphy', ongoing excavations continue to reveal different functional areas and temporal sequences across the broader site complex.

Environmental Context and Site Formation

Desert Adaptation

The location of Saruq Al-Hadid in the arid environment of the Rub' al-Khali desert raises important questions about ancient environmental conditions and human adaptation strategies. Located some 40 km inland from the shore at Jebel Ali, the site is an enigma – the three requirements for smelting metals (water, fuel and ore) are lacking. It has been speculated that the site may have been chosen because of religious beliefs.

Site Formation Processes

This research emphasizes the site's changing significance as a temporary place and its emergence, in the early Iron Age, as a locus for periodic interaction between multiple community groups. The concept of Saruq Al-Hadid as a "persistent temporary place" suggests that the site functioned as a seasonal gathering point where different groups converged for specific activities, including trade, ritual practices, and metallurgical production.

Remote Sensing and Archaeological Detection Technologies

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Applications

The discovery and ongoing investigation of Saruq Al-Hadid has been revolutionized by the application of advanced remote sensing technologies, particularly Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). SAR is the only satellite-based technology able to detect buried artefacts from space, and it is expected that fine-resolution images of ALOS/PALSAR-2 (L-band SAR) would be able to detect large features (>1 m) that might be buried in the subsurface (<2 m) under optimum conditions.

The PALSAR-2 aboard the Advanced Land Observation Satellite 2 (ALOS-2) is a synthetic aperture radar operated by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency. It transmits and receives the L-band microwave characterised by deeper penetration of the SAR signal in dry sand cover overlying potential buried structures. The arid environment of Saruq Al-Hadid provides optimal conditions for SAR penetration, as dry sand and bare soil allow for maximum signal penetration and artifact detection.

Integrated Remote Sensing Approach

Recent research has employed an integrated approach combining multiple remote sensing technologies. SAR data were complemented with very high-resolution Worldview-3 multispectral images (0.31 m panchromatic, 1.24 m VNIR) to obtain a visual assessment of the study area and its land cover features. This multi-sensor approach allows researchers to both detect subsurface features through radar penetration and assess surface conditions through optical imaging.

Machine Learning Applications

Researchers at Khalifa University's Environmental and Geophysical Sciences (ENGEOS) Lab have used satellite remote sensing observations to detect buried objects in already known archaeological sites and to identify potentially unexplored archaeological sites in the UAE by applying machine learning techniques to satellite data. This innovative approach has already yielded promising results, with the unsupervised artificial intelligence developed during this project being partially validated as it was able to find the areas already under excavation.

The machine learning algorithms have successfully identified a new potential area, unexplored yet by classic methods. This area is buried under the ground and is located on the opposite side of the current excavations, demonstrating the power of AI-assisted archaeological prospection.

Archaeological Methodology and Excavation Techniques

Stratigraphic Framework: The Horizon System

The archaeological investigation of Saruq Al-Hadid has been organized using a sophisticated stratigraphic framework developed by the SHARP project. The division into five stratigraphic horizons (Horizon V-I) proposed by the SHARP project is the one followed by multiple international teams working at the site.

Season 3 excavations were undertaken across a total of 17 five by five metre trenches in the central sector of the site, revealing a deep stratigraphic sequence spanning the 3rd through 1st millennia BC (i.e. Umm an-Nar period, Wadi Suq period, Late Bronze Age and early Iron Age) and incorporating five major cultural Horizons (labelled I-V from top to bottom).

The horizons represent distinct cultural and temporal phases:

• Horizon V: Earliest occupation (Umm an-Nar period, c. 2600-2000 BCE)
• Horizon IV: Major Bronze Age occupation with extensive bone midden deposits (Wadi Suq period and Late Bronze Age, c. 1750-1300 BCE)
• Horizon III: Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age transition
• Horizon II: Early to Middle Iron Age metallurgical activities
• Horizon I: Late Iron Age and post-Iron Age surface deposits

Excavation Challenges and Adaptations

The unique environment of Saruq Al-Hadid presents significant challenges for archaeological excavation. Due to the challenges of excavating in the unstable sand matrix of the site, excavations have proceeded by stepping or terracing trenches. This method allows archaeologists to maintain stratigraphic control while working in shifting sand dunes up to 6 meters deep.

Horizon IV: The Bone Midden Complex

One of the most significant archaeological features at Saruq Al-Hadid is the extensive bone midden in Horizon IV. The bone layer measures at least 750 square metres and is up to 1 metre thick. Midden excavations recovered more than one metric ton of bone fragments—primarily from wild animals, including oryx, camel, and gazelle—along with hearths, ceramics, marine shell, and soft stone vessels.

The stone artefact assemblage was recovered from a dense bone midden, labelled Horizon IV, which was deposited across the Wadi Suq period to Late Bronze Age transition, ca. 1750–1300 BC. This massive accumulation represents the continued discarding and accumulation into a mound of animal bones, over a millennium, providing invaluable insights into subsistence strategies and site formation processes.

Multi-Institutional Collaboration

The complexity of Saruq Al-Hadid has necessitated international collaboration involving multiple specialized teams. Research in different sectors of the site was also carried out by teams from the Sanisera Archaeological Institute (Spain, 2015–2019), Thomas Urban and Partner (Germany, 2016–2017) and the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw (Poland, 2016–2018).

Each team has contributed specialized expertise: the SHARP project focused on comprehensive stratigraphic excavation and dating, the Polish team concentrated on areas with heavy copper slag accumulation, the Spanish team investigated metallurgical workshops and ceremonial areas, and the German team applied geophysical survey techniques.

Dating Methodologies

The chronological framework for Saruq Al-Hadid relies on multiple dating techniques. A refined TL dating programme provided further evidence for use of the site for metallurgical activities over a long period from the early Iron Age (c. 1000 BC), through the late pre-Islamic period (c. 300 BC - AD 600), and into the early Islamic period (c. AD 800-1100).

Radiocarbon dating has been complemented by thermoluminescence (TL) analysis of ceramic materials, providing cross-validation of chronological sequences. The initial results of the SHARP absolute dating programme, incorporating radiocarbon (14C) and thermoluminescence (TL) analyses, enhance and extend the knowledge of site chronology provided by artefact typologies.

Recent Research and Technological Advances

International Collaboration and Specialized Studies

Several archaeological expeditions have worked on the site in recent years. The Saruq al-Hadid Archaeological Research Project (SHARP) from the University of New England (UNE), Australia, completed a three-year programme of archaeological fieldwork and post-excavation analysis in 2017. The SHARP project has been particularly significant in establishing the fundamental chronological and stratigraphic framework that guides all subsequent research.

Additional specialized investigations have included archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological, ceramic and archaeometallurgical studies, providing comprehensive insights into ancient lifeways, environmental conditions, and technological practices.

Future Technological Prospects

In September 2024 it was reported that remote sensing satellite technology will be used to help excavations at the site. Researches expect to find structures, tombs and other findings. The integration of AI-powered remote sensing with traditional archaeological methods promises to revolutionize site investigation, potentially revealing the full extent of this ancient civilization buried beneath the desert sands.

Discussion and Implications

Redefining Arabian Prehistory

The evidence from Saruq Al-Hadid challenges traditional models of Arabian prehistory that have emphasized nomadic pastoralism and seasonal settlement patterns. The site demonstrates that certain locations in the Arabian Peninsula supported long-term, specialized activities that attracted participants from across the region. The research team has since discovered that the use of the site started in the Early Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE) and continued through four millennia into the early Islamic period, and has documented major changes in site use and human life style.

Technological Continuity and Innovation

The coexistence of traditional stone tool production with advanced metallurgical technologies at Saruq Al-Hadid illustrates the complex nature of technological change in ancient societies. Rather than representing a simple replacement of old technologies with new ones, the site demonstrates how different technological traditions could persist and adapt to serve specific functions within a broader technological system.

Regional Networks and Cultural Exchange

The extensive trade connections evidenced at Saruq Al-Hadid reveal the Arabian Peninsula's central role in ancient inter-regional networks. The presence of materials from the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, and other distant regions indicates that Arabian societies were active participants in long-distance exchange networks from an early period.

Conclusions

Saruq Al-Hadid represents one of the most significant archaeological discoveries in the Arabian Peninsula, providing evidence for nearly five millennia of continuous human activity in a challenging desert environment. The site's role as a metallurgical center, ritual gathering place, and trading hub demonstrates the complexity and sophistication of ancient Arabian societies.

The archaeological evidence suggests that while the site may not represent a traditional urban civilization with permanent architecture and dense populations, it functioned as a specialized center that served multiple communities across a wide region. This model of "persistent temporary places" may be particularly relevant for understanding settlement patterns in arid environments where seasonal aggregation and dispersal strategies were essential for survival and prosperity.

Future research utilizing advanced remote sensing technologies and continued international collaboration promises to further illuminate the significance of Saruq Al-Hadid and its role in the broader context of Arabian and Near Eastern prehistory. The site stands as a testament to human adaptability and the enduring importance of certain places in the cultural landscape of ancient Arabia.

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Secret city near Dubai discovered underneath empty desert