The Friedmans: Pioneers of American Cryptology

The Friedmans: Pioneers of American Cryptology

A Biographical Study of William and Elizabeth Friedman

Introduction

In the shadowy world of codes and ciphers, few names command as much respect as William Frederick Friedman and Elizabeth Smith Friedman. This husband-and-wife team not only revolutionized the science of cryptology in America but also laid the institutional foundations that would eventually evolve into the National Security Agency (NSA). Their story is one of intellectual brilliance, wartime dedication, and the transformation of cryptology from an arcane art into a rigorous scientific discipline.

Early Lives and Education

William Frederick Friedman was born Wolfe Friedman on September 24, 1891, in Kishinev, Russian Empire (now Chișinău, Moldova), to Jewish parents who immigrated to the United States when he was an infant. The family settled in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where William grew up speaking English as his native language. Despite his family's modest means, William excelled academically and earned a scholarship to Cornell University.

At Cornell, William initially pursued genetics and agriculture, earning his Bachelor of Science degree in 1914. His fascination with patterns and systematic analysis would prove invaluable in his later cryptological work. After graduation, he briefly worked as a geneticist, but his life took a dramatic turn when he answered an advertisement for a research position at Riverbank Laboratories in Geneva, Illinois.

Elizabeth Smith was born on August 26, 1892, in Huntington, Indiana, to a Quaker family that valued education and intellectual pursuit. She attended Wooster College (now The College of Wooster) in Ohio, where she studied English literature and developed a love for Shakespeare. Her academic excellence earned her a position as principal of a small-town high school after graduation in 1915.

Like William, Elizabeth's path to cryptology began with an unexpected opportunity. Seeking better employment prospects, she traveled to Chicago in 1916 and, through a chance encounter at the Newberry Library, learned of a position at Riverbank Laboratories working on Shakespearean research.

The Riverbank Years: Genesis of American Cryptology

The couple's destinies converged at Riverbank Laboratories, the eccentric research facility owned by wealthy textile manufacturer George Fabyan. Fabyan had assembled an eclectic group of researchers to pursue various scientific endeavors, including his pet project of proving that Francis Bacon had written Shakespeare's plays using hidden ciphers.

William arrived at Riverbank in September 1915, initially to work on genetic studies of corn. Elizabeth joined the facility in 1916 to work on the Baconian cipher theory under the direction of Mrs. Elizabeth Wells Gallup. However, both quickly became fascinated with the broader field of cryptology under the tutelage of the facility's informal leader in cipher work.

The couple married on May 21, 1917, beginning both a personal partnership and one of the most productive intellectual collaborations in the history of intelligence work. Together, they transformed Riverbank from an amateur cipher-hunting operation into America's first serious cryptological research center.

During World War I, Riverbank became the de facto cryptological bureau for the United States government. The Army, Navy, and State Department all sent their most challenging cipher problems to the Friedmans. Working long hours in their makeshift laboratory, they solved diplomatic codes, enemy military ciphers, and even domestic criminal cases involving coded messages.

Key Innovations at Riverbank:

• Development of systematic frequency analysis techniques
• Creation of the first comprehensive American textbooks on cryptology
• Establishment of rigorous mathematical approaches to cipher-solving
• Training of the first generation of American cryptologists

William's 1918 monograph "The Index of Coincidence and Its Applications in Cryptography" introduced mathematical rigor to what had previously been largely intuitive work. This publication established him as the leading theoretical cryptologist in America.

World War I and Military Service

When America entered World War I, both Friedmans served their country's cryptological needs. William was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the Army Signal Corps and became the chief cryptographer for the American Expeditionary Forces. Elizabeth continued her work at Riverbank, focusing on diplomatic and commercial codes.

Their wartime contributions were substantial:

• Broke German diplomatic and military codes
• Solved Mexican revolutionary cipher systems
• Developed new cipher systems for American military use
• Trained military personnel in cryptological techniques

The war demonstrated the critical importance of cryptological intelligence in modern warfare and established the Friedmans as America's foremost cipher experts.

Between the Wars: Building Institutional Foundations

After the war, the couple continued their cryptological careers along different paths that would prove complementary to American intelligence capabilities.

William's Army Career (1920-1955)

William joined the War Department as a civilian cryptographer in 1920, becoming the chief of the Cipher Bureau in the Office of the Chief Signal Officer. In this role, he built America's first permanent military cryptological organization. His responsibilities included:

• Developing secure communication systems for the military
• Training cryptographers and cryptanalysts
• Creating standardized procedures and methodologies
• Building institutional knowledge and capabilities

In 1929, when Secretary of State Henry Stimson famously declared that "gentlemen do not read each other's mail" and shut down the State Department's cipher bureau, William's Army organization became even more crucial. He quietly absorbed many of the talented cryptologists from the disbanded civilian operation.

Throughout the 1930s, William worked tirelessly to prepare America for the cryptological challenges of another world war. He:

• Established the Signal Intelligence Service (SIS) in 1930
• Recruited and trained a new generation of cryptologists
• Developed machine cipher systems
• Advanced the mathematical foundations of cryptanalysis

Elizabeth's Treasury Career (1925-1946)

Elizabeth carved out her own distinguished career with the Treasury Department, focusing on law enforcement applications of cryptology. Starting in 1925, she became the government's leading expert on criminal and smuggling codes.

Her work included:

• Breaking rum-runner codes during Prohibition
• Solving drug smuggling cipher systems
• Testifying as an expert witness in federal courts
• Training Treasury agents in cryptological techniques

Elizabeth's courtroom appearances made her one of the few publicly known cryptologists of her era. Her clear explanations of complex cryptological concepts to juries helped secure convictions in numerous high-profile cases.

World War II: The Crucible Years

World War II represented the culmination of the Friedmans' life work and their greatest contributions to American security.

William and the European Theater

As chief of the Army's cryptological efforts, William oversaw the expansion of American signals intelligence from a small peacetime operation to a massive wartime organization employing thousands of people. His prewar preparations proved crucial as America faced sophisticated Axis cryptological challenges.

Key achievements included:

• Supervision of German Enigma decryption efforts (though the British-American partnership meant much of this work built on earlier British successes)
• Breaking Japanese diplomatic codes before Pearl Harbor
• Developing secure American cipher systems
• Coordinating with Allied cryptological efforts

The intelligence derived from broken enemy codes, known as "Ultra" for European operations and "Magic" for Japanese codes, proved decisive in numerous military operations.

Elizabeth and South American Networks

Elizabeth's wartime role focused on Nazi espionage and communication networks in South America. Working from Washington, she led efforts to:

• Break German spy codes operating throughout Latin America
• Identify and neutralize Nazi intelligence networks
• Coordinate with Latin American governments on security matters
• Develop countermeasures against German cryptological operations

Her work was so successful that by 1943, German intelligence operations in South America had been largely neutralized. The FBI and other agencies relied heavily on her cryptological intelligence to identify German agents and their American contacts.

Post-War Contributions and the Birth of NSA

Following World War II, both Friedmans played crucial roles in establishing America's permanent cryptological capabilities during the early Cold War period.

William and the Establishment of Modern Signals Intelligence

After the war, William faced the challenge of transitioning from wartime to peacetime cryptological operations while maintaining America's intelligence capabilities in the face of new threats from the Soviet Union.

His contributions to the creation of modern American signals intelligence included:

• Helping to establish the Armed Forces Security Agency (AFSA) in 1949
• Advising on the reorganization that created the National Security Agency in 1952
• Developing protocols for interagency cooperation
• Training the next generation of cryptological leaders

Although William retired from government service in 1955, his institutional frameworks and trained personnel formed the backbone of the newly created NSA.

Elizabeth's Continued Service and Expertise

Elizabeth continued her Treasury work into the early Cold War period, adapting her skills to new challenges:

• Investigating communist espionage networks
• Breaking Soviet intelligence codes
• Training new generations of Treasury cryptologists
• Consulting on cryptological matters for multiple agencies

Scientific and Academic Contributions

Beyond their government service, both Friedmans made lasting contributions to cryptology as an academic discipline.

William's Theoretical Work

• "Elements of Cryptanalysis" (1923) - the first systematic American textbook on cryptanalysis
• "Advanced Military Cryptography" (1935) - advanced techniques for military cryptographers
• Numerous classified technical reports that advanced cryptological science
• Development of statistical methods still used in modern cryptanalysis

Elizabeth's Scholarly Research

• "The Shakespearean Ciphers Examined" (co-authored with William, 1957) - a definitive debunking of Baconian cipher theories
• Numerous technical reports on law enforcement cryptology
• Development of forensic cryptographical techniques

Personal Partnership and Professional Collaboration

The Friedmans' marriage was remarkable not only for its personal happiness but also for the way it enhanced both of their professional contributions. They complemented each other intellectually, with William's mathematical approach balancing Elizabeth's linguistic and literary insights.

Their collaboration included:

• Joint research projects spanning their entire careers
• Mutual support during high-pressure wartime operations
• Shared commitment to advancing cryptological science
• Combined efforts in training new cryptologists

The couple had two children, Barbara and John Ramsay, and managed to maintain a strong family life despite the demanding and secretive nature of their work.

Challenges and Controversies

The Friedmans' careers were not without difficulties and controversies:

Security Concerns and Investigations During the Cold War paranoia of the 1950s, both Friedmans faced security investigations due to their Jewish heritage and William's birth in Russia. Despite their decades of loyal service and crucial contributions to American security, they endured questioning about their loyalty and associations.

Professional Recognition Much of their work remained classified for decades, limiting public recognition of their contributions. Elizabeth, in particular, faced gender-based discrimination and received less recognition than her achievements warranted.

Health Impacts The intense pressure and long hours of their careers took a toll on both. William suffered from depression and anxiety in his later years, possibly related to the stress of his wartime responsibilities and post-war security investigations.

Legacy and Impact

The Friedmans' impact on American cryptology and intelligence capabilities cannot be overstated:

Institutional Legacy

• Founded the theoretical and practical foundations of American cryptology
• Established training programs that educated generations of cryptologists
• Created institutional structures that evolved into modern intelligence agencies
• Developed procedures and methodologies still used today

Scientific Legacy

• Transformed cryptology from art to science through mathematical rigor
• Advanced statistical and mathematical approaches to cryptanalysis
• Established cryptology as a legitimate academic discipline
• Created the intellectual framework for modern signals intelligence

Cultural Legacy

• Demonstrated that intellectual couples could maintain both personal happiness and professional excellence
• Showed the crucial role of civilians in national defense
• Proved the value of interdisciplinary approaches to complex problems
• Inspired future generations of intelligence professionals

The Path to NSA

While neither Friedman lived to see the full flowering of modern American intelligence capabilities, their contributions were essential to the establishment of the National Security Agency in 1952.

The organizational structures William created in the Army, combined with the analytical techniques both Friedmans pioneered, formed the foundation upon which NSA was built. Many of their former students and colleagues became leaders in the new agency, carrying forward the Friedmans' emphasis on scientific rigor and professional excellence.

Key elements of their legacy in NSA's founding:

• Scientific approach to cryptological problems
• Emphasis on mathematical and statistical techniques
• Systematic training and professional development
• Integration of multiple intelligence disciplines
• Commitment to technological advancement

Later Years and Recognition

William retired from government service in 1955 and spent his remaining years writing and consulting. He received numerous honors, including the Medal for Merit from President Truman and recognition as one of the founders of modern cryptology.

Elizabeth retired from the Treasury Department in 1946 but continued consulting work and research. She received less public recognition during her lifetime but has since been acknowledged as one of America's most important early intelligence professionals.

William died on November 12, 1969, and Elizabeth on October 31, 1980. They are buried in Arlington National Cemetery, their headstone bearing the simple inscription "Knowledge is Power" - a fitting tribute to their life's work.

Conclusion

William and Elizabeth Friedman's story is ultimately one of intellectual partnership in service of national security. Together, they transformed American cryptology from a handful of amateur enthusiasts into a sophisticated scientific discipline supported by robust institutional structures.

Their contributions to the founding of NSA were both direct and indirect - direct through the organizational frameworks and trained personnel they provided, and indirect through the scientific and professional standards they established. The modern American intelligence community owes an immeasurable debt to their pioneering work.

Perhaps most remarkably, the Friedmans achieved their monumental contributions while maintaining their personal partnership and family life. They proved that scientific excellence and personal happiness need not be mutually exclusive, and that the most challenging problems of national security could be solved through the combined efforts of dedicated professionals working together.

In an age when intelligence work is often portrayed in terms of individual heroics or technological wizardry, the Friedmans' story reminds us that the most lasting contributions come from patient scientific work, institutional building, and the training of future generations. Their legacy lives on not just in the agencies they helped create, but in the scientific approach to intelligence that remains the foundation of American cryptological capabilities today.

The National Security Agency, when it was established in 1952, stood on foundations laid by William and Elizabeth Friedman over the preceding three decades. In that sense, they can truly be considered among the founding figures not just of American cryptology, but of the modern American intelligence community itself.

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Sources and Bibliography

Primary Sources

National Security Agency Historical Collections

• Friedman, William F. Personal Papers and Correspondence Collection. National Security Agency Historical Collection, National Cryptologic Museum, Fort Meade, MD.
• Friedman, Elizabeth S. Treasury Department Files and Reports, 1925-1946. National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD.

Published Works by the Friedmans

• Friedman, William F. The Index of Coincidence and Its Applications in Cryptography. Riverbank Laboratories, 1918.
• Friedman, William F. Elements of Cryptanalysis. War Department, 1923.
• Friedman, William F. Advanced Military Cryptography. War Department, 1935.
• Friedman, William F. and Elizabeth S. Friedman. The Shakespearean Ciphers Examined. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957.

Secondary Sources

Books

Clark, Ronald W. The Man Who Broke Purple: The Life of Colonel William F. Friedman, Who Deciphered the Japanese Code in World War II. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1977.

Fagone, Jason. The Woman Who Smashed Codes: A True Story of Love, Spies, and the Unlikely Heroine Who Outwitted America's Enemies. New York: Harper, 2017. URL: https://www.harpercollins.com/products/the-woman-who-smashed-codes-jason-fagone

Kahn, David. The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet. New York: Scribner, 1996.

Mundy, Liza. Code Girls: The Untold Story of the American Women Code Breakers of World War II. New York: Hachette Books, 2017.

Singh, Simon. The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography. New York: Anchor Books, 2000.

Winkler, Jonathan Reed. Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.

Journal Articles and Academic Papers

Bauer, Craig P. "The Friedman Legacy: A Tribute to William and Elizabeth Friedman." Cryptologia 39, no. 1 (2015): 1-31. DOI: 10.1080/01611194.2014.915755

Budiansky, Stephen. "Difficult Beginnings: The Early History of U.S. Signal Intelligence." Intelligence and National Security 17, no. 4 (2002): 1-32. DOI: 10.1080/714002951

Hatch, David A. "The Friedmans and the Science of Codes." NSA Newsletter (Historical Review), no. 3 (1995): 15-28.

Kruh, Louis. "The Genesis of the Government Code and Cypher School." Cryptologia 10, no. 1 (1986): 13-27. DOI: 10.1080/0161-118691857893

Weber, Ralph Edward. "William Frederick Friedman: A Bibliography." Cryptologia 6, no. 1 (1982): 1-10. DOI: 10.1080/0161-118291857029

Government and Institutional Publications

National Security Agency. William F. Friedman: A Brief Biography. Fort Meade, MD: NSA Center for Cryptologic History, 2006. URL: https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/historical-figures-publications/hall-of-honor/2002/wfriedman/

National Security Agency. Elizebeth Smith Friedman: A Cryptologic Pioneer. Fort Meade, MD: NSA Center for Cryptologic History, 2008. URL: https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/historical-figures-publications/hall-of-honor/2008/efriedman/

U.S. Army Security Agency. The Origin and Development of the Army Security Agency, 1917-1947. Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 1978.

Archive and Museum Collections

George C. Marshall Foundation. William F. Friedman Collection. Lexington, VA. URL: https://www.marshallfoundation.org/library/collection/william-f-friedman-collection/

National Cryptologic Museum. The Friedman Legacy Exhibit. Fort Meade, MD. URL: https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/museum/

Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of American History Cryptology Collection. Washington, DC. URL: https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_693751

Online Resources and Digital Collections

CIA Historical Review Program. "The Friedmans and Early American Cryptology." Studies in Intelligence 44, no. 3 (2000). URL: https://www.cia.gov/static/7e854de24151f9b009ba17e51ce8c6b2/friedman-cryptology.pdf

National Archives. Records of the Army Security Agency (World War II), Record Group 457. College Park, MD. URL: https://catalog.archives.gov/id/301654

National Security Agency. "Cryptologic Hall of Honor." URL: https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/historical-figures-publications/hall-of-honor/

Documentary and Media Sources

"The Codebreakers: Elizebeth Smith Friedman." American Experience, PBS, 2020. URL: https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/codebreaker/

"Ultra: The Secret War." BBC Documentary Series, 1987.

Archival Correspondence and Personal Papers

Friedman Family Correspondence, 1917-1969. Private collection, digitized by the National Cryptologic Museum, 2010.

Riverbank Laboratories Records, 1915-1930. Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, Springfield, IL. URL: https://www.lincolnlibraryandmuseum.com/research/manuscripts-collection

Note on Sources

Many documents related to the Friedmans' work remained classified for decades after their completion. The gradual declassification of these materials, particularly beginning in the 1970s and continuing through the present day, has allowed for increasingly comprehensive biographical studies. Researchers should note that some materials remain classified, and new documents continue to be released periodically by the National Security Agency and other agencies.

The National Security Agency's Center for Cryptologic History maintains the most comprehensive collection of materials related to both William and Elizabeth Friedman, and their online resources provide excellent starting points for further research. The National Cryptologic Museum at Fort Meade, Maryland, also houses important artifacts and documents related to their careers.